
Book_^L 



IS5 



AN 



ESSAY 




Hy Bilnitmd MitMn. 



SECOND EDlTIOXr. 



SHELLBANKS, VA. 



tt'BLISHED Vr THE OFFICE OF THE FAR.AIERS' REGIfeXEK. 

1835. 



6feA^ 






Copy right secwerf according to the Act of CoiigreBs- 



SMEtiBANKS, Va.— Robert Ricketts, Fruiter. 



PREFACE. 



' The object of this Essay is to investigate the peculiar features and qualities of the soils of our tide-water 
district, to show the causes of their general unproductiveness, and to point out means as yet but little used 
for their effectual and profitable improvement. My observations are particularly addressed to the cultivators 
of that part of Virginia which lies between the sea coast and the falls of the rivers, and are generally in- 
tended to be applied only within those limits. By thus confining the application of the opinions which will 
be maintained, it is not intended to deny the propriety of their being further extended. On the contrary, I 
do not doubt but that they may correctly apply to all similar soils, under similar circumstances; for the opera- 
tions of nature are conducted by uniform laws, and like causes must everywhere produce like effects. But 
as I shall rely for proofs on such facts as are either sufficiently well known already, or may easily be tested 
by any inquirer, I do not choose to extend my ground so far, as to be opposed by the assertion of other facts, 
the truth of which can neither be establislied nor overthrown by any available or sufficient testimony. 

The peculiar qualities of our soils have been little noticed, and the causes of those peculiarities have never 
been sought — and though new and valuable truths may await the first explorers of this opening for agricul- 
tural research, yet they can scarcely avoid mistakes sufficiently numerous to moderate the triumph of success. 
I am not blind to the difficulties of the investigation, nor to my own unfitness to overcome them — nor should 
I have hazarded the attempt, but for the belief that such an investigation is all important for the improve- 
ment of our soil and agriculture, and that it was in vain to hope that it would be undertaken by those who 
were better qualified to do justice to the subject. I ask a deliberate hearing, and a strict scrutiny of my 
opinions, from those most interested in their truth. If a change, in most of our lands, from hopeless sterility 
to a high state of productiveness, is a vain fancy, it will be easy to discover and expose the fallacy of my 
views; but if these views are well founded, none better deserve the attention of farmers, and nothino- can 
more seriously affect the future agricultural prosperity of our countiy. No where ought such improvements 
to be more highly valued, or more eagerly sought, than among us, where so many causes have concurred to 
reduce our products, and the prices of our lands, to the lowest state, and are yearly extending want, and its 
consequence, ignorance, among the cultivators and proprietors. 

In pursuing this inquiry, it wiU be necessary to show the truth of various facts and opinions, which as yet 
are unsupported by authority, and most of which have scarcely been noticed by agricultural writers, unless 
to be denied. The number of proofs that will be required, and the discursive course through which they 
must be reached, may probably render more obscure the reasoning of an unpractised writer. Treatises on 
agriculture ought to be so written as to be clearly understood, though it should be at the expense of some 
other requisites of good writing — and in this respect, I shall be satisfied il' I succeed in making my opinions 
intelligible to every reader, though many might well dispense with such particular explanations. Agricul- 
tural works are seldom considered as requiring very close attention; and therefore, to be made useful, they 
should be put in a shape suited to cursory and irregular reading. A truth may be clearly established — but if 
its important consequences cannot be regularly deduced for many pages afterwards, the premises will then 
probably have been forgotten, so that a very particular reference to them may be required. These consider- 
ations must serve as my apology forsome repetitions — and for minute explanations and details, which soine 
readers may deem unnecessary. 

The theoretical opinions supported in this essay, together with my earliest experiments with calcareous 
manures, were published in the American Farmer, (vol. 3. page 313,) in 1821. No reason has since induced 
me to retract any of the important positions then assumed. But tlie many imperfections in that publication, 
which grew out of my want of experience, made it my duty, at some future time, to correct its errors, and 
supply the deficiencies of proof, from the fruits of subsequent practice and observation. With these views, 
this essay was commenced and finished in 1826. But the work had so grown on my hands, that instead of 
being of a size suitable for insertion in an agricultural journal, it would have filled a volume. The unwilling- 
ness to assume so conspicuous a position, as the publication in that form would have required, and the fear 
that my work would be more likely to meet with neglect or censure than applause, induced me to lay it aside, 
and to give up all intention of publication. Since that time, the use of Ibssil shells as a manure has greatly 
increased, in my own neighborhood and elsewhere, and has been attended generally with all the improvement 
and profit that was expected. But from paying no regard to the theory of the operation of this manure, and 
from not taking warning from the known errors and losses of myself as well as others, most persons have 
used it injudiciously, and have damaged more or less of their lands. So many disasters of this kind, seemed 
likely to restrain the use of this valuable manure, and even to destroy its reputation, just as it was beginning 
rapidly to extend. The additional considcjatioij has at last iaduced me to risk the publication of this essay. 



IV. PREFACE. 

The experience of five more years, since it was written, has not contradicted any of the opinions then ad- 
vanced — and no change has been made in the work, except in form, and by continuing the reports of experi- 
ments to the present time. 

It should be remembered, that my attempt to convey instruction is confined to a single means of improving 
our lands, and increasing our profits: and though many other operations are, from necessity, incidentally no- 
ticed, my opinions or practices on such objects are not referred to as furnishing rules for good husbandry. In using 
calcareous manure for the improvement of poor soils, my labors have been highly successful — but thatsucceaa 
is not necessarily accompanied by general good management and economy. To those who know me intimate, 
ly, it would be unnecessary to confess the small pretensions that I have to the character of a good farmer — but 
to others, it may be required, for the purpose of explaining why other improvements and practices of good 
husbandry have not been more aided by, and kept pace with, the effects of my use of calcareous ma^ 
nures. 

ffhellbanks, Virginia, January \ 
20th, 1834. 5 



ABVJERTISEMENT 

To 8ecoii$l E^ditioii. 



When the first edition of this Essay was published, it met with a reception far more favorable, and a demand 
from purchasers much greater, than the author's anticipations had reached: and it is merely in accordance 
with the concurrent testimony of the many agriculturists who have since expressed and published opinions 
on the subject, to say that the publication has already had great and valuable effects in directing attention, and 
inducing successful efforts, to the improvement of land by calcareous manures. Experimental knowledge on 
this head has probably been more than doubled within the last two years; and the narrow limits of the region 
within which marling had previously been confined, have been enlarged to perhaps tenfold their former 
extent. Still, the circumstances now existing, however changed for the better, present a mere beginning of 
the immense and valuable improvements of soil, and increase of profits, that must hereafter grow out of the 
use of calcareous manures, if their operation is properly understood by those who apply them. But if used 
without that knowledge, their great value will certainly not be found; and indeed, they will often cause more 
loss than profit. It is therefore not so important to the farmers of our country at large to be convinced of the 
general and great value of calcareous manures — and to those in the great Atlantic tide-water region to know 
the newly established truth, that their beds of fossil shells furnish the best and cheapest of manures — as it is, that 
all should know in what manner, and by what general laws, these manures operate — how they produce bene- 
fit, and when they may be either worthless, or injurious. And this more important end, the author regrets to be- 
lieve has as yet scarcely been even partially attained, by the dissemination and proper understanding of correct 
views of the subject. Of course it is not to be supposed that this Essay has been read, (if even heard of,) by 
one in ten of the many who have been prompted by verbal information, to attempt the practice it recommends; 
and of those who have read, and who have even expressed warm approbation of the work, it has seldom been 
found that their praise was discriminating, or founded upon a thorough examination of its reasoning and theo- 
retical views, on which, whatever value it may possess, principally rests. For all persons who are so easily con- 
vinced, it may be truly said, that the volume embraced nothing more, and was worth no more, than would be 
found in these few words — "the application of calcareous manures will be found highly improving and profit- 
able." It is not therefore at all strange, that the attentive reading of a volume to obtain this truth, was gene^ 
rally deemed unnecessary. 

Though the first edition of this work has been nearly exhausted, the circulation has as yet been almost con- 
fined to a small portion of only the state of Virginia, in which the mode of improvement recommended had 
previously been successfully commenced, or had at least attracted much attention. But this district is not bet- 
ter fitted to be thus improved than the remainder of the great tide-water region, stretching from Long Island 
to Mobile — and to a great part of which, calcareous manures may be cheaply applied. It is only in parts of 
Maryland and Virginia that many extensive and highly profitable applications of fossil shells, or marl, haye 



ADVEUTISEMKNT, T. 

been yet made! in North Carolina, the value of the manure has been but lately tried— in South Carolina and 
Georgia, no notice of it has been yet taken, or at least has not been made known— and in Florida and Alabama, 
(parts of which are peculiarly suited to receive these benefits,) it is most erroneously thought that such im- 
provements are only profitable for old settled and impoverished countries. The farmers of Pennsylvania have 
gone far ahead of those in Virginia in manuring with lime— and it is believed (but upon no certain testimony) 
that in New Jersey, use has been made of the calcareous manure which in Virginia is called marl, as well as 
of the greea sand, which they even still more erroneously call by the same name. But whatever may have 
been the extent of their use of calcareous manures of every kind, and however great their success, it is be- 
lieved that our northern brethren have been as little directed by correct views of the operation of these ma- 
nures, as those of the south, who have neglected them entirely. 

But though the circulation of this work will be most useful through the great tide-water region, which is so 
generally supplied with underlying beds of fossil shells, and so much of the soil of which especially needs 
such manure— still the assertion may be ventured that there is no part of the country, where the views present- 
ed, if true, are not important to be known — and if known, would not be highly useful to aid the improve- 
ment of soils. It is to the general theory of the constitution of fertile and barren soils, that the attention and 
severe scrutiny of both scientific and practical agriculturists are invited — and to the several minor points 
there presented, which are either altogether new, or not established by authority: such as the doctrine of acidity 
in soils — of the incapacity of poor and acid soils to be enriched — and of the entire absence of carbonate of 
lime in most of the soils of this country. 

The circumstances stated above, have induced the publication of a second edition as a supplement to the 
Farmers' Register, (and suited to be bound with either volume of that work,) which, in that form, may 
have the facility of distribution through the mail — and which may be offered at so low a price as to reach, as 
nearly as possible, that general circulation which is its author's main object. 

This edition will contain nearly three-fourths more print than the first, (each page of this, containing as 
much as four and a half pages of that,) and yet will be sold at but little more than half the price. The new 
matter consists principally of more full explanations— additional and new proofs— and more full and minute 
directions for practical operations, designed especially for the use of those who are beginning to apply marl, 
and have every thing on the subject to learn. 



I 



WMmmiM ®w ®®mwm^w§^ 



IPiilBS Ho— Theory. 

Chapter I. 



General descnpiion of earths and soils, 
The necessity of distinguishing each 9. Description of si- 
licious, aluminous and calcareous earths, 9. Guide to 
the chemical nomenclature of neutral salts, 9. Magne- 
sia, 10. Soils formed by the mixture of earths, 10. 
Plan of a nomenclature of soils proposed, 10, 11. 

Chapter II. 

On the soils and state of agriculture of the tide- 
water district of Virginia, .... 

General features of the tide-water region, and character of 
its soils, 11. Ridges, 11. Slopes, 11. River banks and 
alluvial bottoms, 13. General sterility, 12. Unproduc- 
tive cultivation, 12, 13. 

Chapter III. 

The different capacities of soils for receiving im- 



provement. 



Propositions stated for discussion, 13. Natural fertUity 
defined, 13. Permanency of the steril or fi'rtile charac- 
ters of different countries, and of particular soils, 14. 
Land naturally poor not capable of being enriched by 
putrescent manures, 14. Denied by theorists and au- 
thors, 14. By Arator, 14, 1.^. Evidence in favor of the 
position, 15. The degree of original fertility, the limit 
ofprofitable improvement by putrescent manures, 16. 

Chapter IV. 

Effects of the presence of calcareous earth in soils, 16 
Calcareous earth not found in poor soils of Lower Virgin- 
ia, 16. Its presence connected with fertility, 16. E.\- 
amples in shelly soils, 16. Their richne.ss and peculiar 
qualities, 16. Barrenness of soils excessively calca- 
reous, 17. Both European and American writers sup- 
pose calcareous earth generally present in soils, 17. 
The opinion mistaken as to Virginia, 18. 

Chapter V. 

Results of the chemical examinaiion of various 
soils, '- 18 

Different methods of finding calcareous earth in soils, or 
to show its absence, 18. By solution and precipitation, 
18. Objections to its accuracy, 18. Method by Davy's 
apparatus, 19. A more simple and easy method, 19. 
Soils examined, 19. Calcareous soils are fertile, 20. 
Poor soils not calcareous, 20. Many fertile soils al- 
-so, j.nd most limestone soils not calcareous, 20. 

Chapter VI. 

Chemical examination of rich soils containing no 
calcareous earth, - - - - 20 

Rich river lands, 20. Various limestone soils, 21. Soils 
from Pennsylvania and New York, 21. Very few soils 
found to contain calcareous earth, 21. Pr.airie soils in 
Alabama, highly calcareous, 22. 

Chapter VII. 

Proofs of the existence of acid and neutral soils, 22 



Lime in some proportion in every soil capable of sup- 
porting vegetation, 22. Enunciation of the doctrines of 
acid soils and neutral soils, 23. Acid not considered an 
ingredient of soil by any writers of authority, and de- 
nied by others, 23. Proofs of the existence of acid and 
neutral soils, 23. Growth of sorrel and pine, 23. Dead 
acid plants most favor the growth of living ones, 
24. Acid in farm -yard manure, and its effects, 24. Chan- 
ges of one vegetable acid to another, 24. Acid of soil 
poisonous to valuable crops, 25. Indirect proofs of 
acid from the analysis of neutral soils, 25. Difficulties 
attending the geological theory of the formation of 
soils, and the denial of acidity, 26. Disappearance of 
calcareous earth known once to have been present, 26, 
27. Lime in all wood ashes, 27. Proof from the recent 
chemical discovery of humic acid, 27, 28. Deductions — 
Supposed natural formation and progress of neutral and 
acid soils, 28. Dormant and concealed fertile power of 
the poor acid wood land, 29. Dillerence from most Euro- 
pean soils, 29. 

Chapter VIII. 

The mode of operation of calcareous earth in soils, 29 
Silicious earth has no chemical power to retain putres- 
cent matters, 29. Aluminous earth but little— and much 
mechanical jwwer to prevent giving food to plants, 30. 
Objections to the common opinion that manures arc 
lost by sinking, 30. Chemical power of calcareous earth 
to combine with and retain putrescent matters, 30. 
Different proofs exhibited, 30, 31. Power of calcareous 
earth to destroy acidity in soils, 31. The sure and sud- 
den benefit found from this action, 32. Power of cal- 
careous earth to make clay soils more light,- and sandy 
soils more stift", 32 — of increasing tlie ability of soils to 
absorb and retain moi.sture, 32. Davy's theory of the 
action of quicklime as manure, 32, 33. Application of 
the theory, and particularly to the soils of Virginia, 33. 
Quicklime, applied as manure , soon changes to carbo- ; 

nate of lime, and its efiects then only are such as belong I 

to calcareous earth, 33. Proposed classification of ma- I 

nures under the heads of alimentary, solvent, mor- 
dants, neutralizing, mechanical, slimulatiiig, and specific 
manures, 34. 

IPAIB^ nno-Fs*«ettic.e. 

Chapter IX. 

General observations on marl and lime. Effects 
of calcareous manures on acid sandy soils, new- 
It/ cleared, . . . . . 35_ 
The theory of the constitution of soils sustained by practi- 
cal proof, 35. Fossil shells, improperly called marl, 35. 
Improper use of the term marl in England, 35. Written 
instructions on marl serve to discourage the use of fossil 
shells, 35. Their 'directions for liming, a better guide, 

35. Earliest known use of fossil shells in this country, 

36. General remarks introductory to the details of ex- 
periments, 36, 37. Experiments on newly cleared sandy 
soils, early and late results, 37, 38. Others early and 
late, compared with effects of putrescent manures, 39, 
40. 

Chapter X. 

Effects of calcareous manure on acid clay soih, re- 
cently cleared, - - - - 40i 
Dc-criplion of the worst known claps of clay soils, 40. Re- 



CONTENTS. 



luaxkable effect oft such from marling, In gram crops and 
clover, 41, 42. Products mcreasing with time, i'i. 

Chapter XI. 

The effects of calcareous manures on acid soils 
impoverished by culiivation, - - - 43 

Marling always very effective on these soils, 43. Causes 
of disappointment and loss experienced, 43. Early and 
late effects of light dressings, 43. Of marl applied too 
heavily on'such land, 43, 44. Remedy afforded by clover 
and gjpsum, 45. Other results of heavy dressings, with 
and without the addition of putrescent manures, 45, 46. 

Chapter XII. 

Effects of calcareous manures on "free light land," 46 
Peculiar characters of this kind of soil, 46. Analysis of 
the soil, 47. Effects of marl on, 47. 

Chapter XIII. 

Effects of calcareous manures on exhausted acid 
soils under their second growth of trees, - 47 

Experiments showing remarkable effects of marling land 
in this state, 47,48. 

Chapter XIV. 

Effects of calcareous manures alone, or with gyp- 
sum, on neutral soils, - - - - 48 

Experiments of tliis kind difficult to make, and unsatisfac- 
tory, 48. Gyi)seous marl described, 48, 49. Gypseoits 
eaiih, 49. Lime and cement obtained from marl, 49. 
Effects of gj'pseous marl on calcareous and neutral soils, 
49, 50. G} psum effective on land after marling, tliough 
of no effect before, 50 Proofs offered, 50, 51. 

Chapter XV. 

Tlie damage caused by calcareous manure, und its 
remedies, - - - - - 51 

The injurious effects of marl on corn and wheat describ- 
ed, 51. How prevented, or removed, 52. Clover not 
hurt by any excess of marl, .52. Cause of the disease 
not certainly known, 52. Tlie mere quantity of calca- 
reous earth in soil not the cause, 52. Supposed to be 
newly formed salt of lime, 52. 

Chapter XVI. 

Recapitulation of the effects of calcareous ma- 
nures, and directions for their most profitable ap- 
plication, - - - . - 52 

Conformity of the results of practice to previous theoret- 
ical views, 53. Marling most effectual in conjunction 
with putrescent manures and on acid and sandy soils, 
. 53. Lessened in effect by exhausting tillage, 53. Unu- 
sual increase of products obtained, 53. Rules for fixing 
safe and proper quantities of marl to be applied, 53, 54. 

Advantage of marling woodland before clearing, 54. 

Cultivation of "pine old fields" wiUi and without marl- 
ing, 54. Less improvement from marl on exhausted 
"free light land," 54. Supposed causes of the peculiar 
qualities of such soils, 54, 55. Marling deepens sandy 
soils, 55. Peculiar benefits of marling to certain crops 
—cotton, wheat and clover, 55. The impossibility of 
raisuig red clover on acid soils before marling, and the 
certainty afterwards, 55. The causes to which former 
failures were erroneously attributed, 55. Wliat weeds 
encouraged by marling, 56. Practical directions for new 
beginners at marling, 56. Permitting grazing at first, 56. 
Reasons for early disappointments experienced, 57. Ob- 
stacles to the extension of marling, 57. Anticipations, 
57. The usual objections to sandy soils unfounded, and 
proofs of their fitness for profitable improvement and 
tillage, 57, 58. 

Ghapter XVII. 

The permanency of calcareous manures, - - 58 

Known long continued effects of marl, 58. Reasons for 



their permanency, 58, 59. Supposed progress of action 
of marl and of its effects on soils, traced, 59. Difference 
in the manner, and difiiculty of improving e-xliausted 
calcareous and acid soils, 59i 

Chapter XVIII, 
The expense and profit of marling, - - 59 

The former general incredulity respecting the value of 
marl now charged to too ready and erroneous belief, 59. 
Improper mode of estimating the value of land, and of 
unprovements of the soil, 60. True mode of estimating 
values, 60. Objections answered, 61. Statements of 
actual expenses incurred in marling, 61. Faults in the 
usutil course of persons commencing to marl, and ad- 
vantages of a different course, 61. The distant transpor- 
tation of marl, 62. The cost may be advantageously in- 
curred for gardens, and town lots, 62. Rail roads and 
canals considered as means for conveying marl, 62. 

Chapter XIX. 

Tlie use of calcareous manures recommended to pre- 
serve putrescent manures, and to promote clean- 
liyiess and health, especially in toivns, - - 62 

Effect of calcareous earth in preventing the waste of the 
products of putrifying carcasses, 62, 63. Cases in which 
this power might be usefully employed, 63. Considered 
as a means of saving manures, and for guarding health, 
63. In towns, 63, 64. Difference of tlie preservative 
action of marl, in this respect, and the destructive action 
of quicklime, 64. Greater cost and inconvenience of 
lime, 64, 65. Practical effects of calcareous earth in 
preserving health, 65. Advantages of its use in towns, 
65. Shelled streets of Mobile, 65. Tlie burning of 
towns, how operating to improve health, 66 Healthi- 
ness of the calcareous prairies of Alabama, 66, 67. Ex- 
perience of such effects from niarUng, 67. 

Chapter XX. 

Directions for digging and carting marl, 67 

Description of dcposites of fossil shells in Virginia, 67, 68, 
69. Green sand, 68. Directions for searching for mail 
— a cheap borer, 69. Removing the cover of earth, 69. 
Working marl pits, 69, 70. Draining wet pits, 70. Ma- 
king roads up hUls, 70, 71. Marl carts, 71. Conclusion, 72. 

IFiilES' nnUg Appendix. 

Note A. 

The different improper significations of the term 

"calcareous earth," - - - - T2 

Impropriety of the most general applications of this term, 

and reasons for limiting its use to the carbonate of lime, 

72, 73. 

Note B. 

The names given to soils by writers on agriculture 
often incorrect and contradictory, - - 73 

Note C. 

Some of the effects of slavery on agricultural pro- 
fits, - - - - - - TS 

Causes of the rapid increase of slaves, 73. Their sale and 
transportation the necessary consequences, 74. Effect 

of increased fertility of soil on population, 74. 

Note D. 

Opinions that soils are generally calcareous, - 74 
Proofs drawn from the language of writers on agriculture, 
74. Gross errors in this respect as to American soils, 75. 

Note E. 

Directions for analyzing marl and other calcareous 

substances, - - - - - 73 

Davy's apparatus, 75. Superior advantages, and particu- 



CONTENTS. 



77 



82 



89 



lar description of Rogers' apparatus, 75, 76. Plain direc- 
tions for analyzing marl by solution and precipitation, 

76, 77. 

Note F. 

Proofs of the existence of acid soils, fwtiished by 

the recent researches of chemists. 
Extracts translated from Berzelius— chemical characters 

of mould, 78. Of extract of mould, 78. Of geine (or 

humin,) 79. Of carbonaceous mould, 80. Of soil, 80. 

Acid soil, 81. 

Note G. 

The statements of British authors on marl gener- 
ally incorrect and contradictory. 

Proofs exhibited in extracts from various authors on tliis 
subject, 82 to 90. 

Note G— 2. 

The earliest known successful applications of fos- 
sil she Us as manure, . . - . 

Old experiment and supposed failure in Prince George, 
Virginia, 89. Earliest marling in Talbot County, Mary- 
land, and James City County, Virginia, 89. Col. Tay- 
lor's low estimate of the value of marl, 89. Letter of 
Mr. Singleton, describing the commencement and pro- 
gress of his marling operations, 90 to 92. 

Note H. 

Gypseous earth of Jaines River and the green marl 
of New Jersey, both belonging to the "green 
sand formation," .... 

Discovery of this deposite in Prince George, and in James 
City, Virginia, 93. 

Note I. 

The cause of the inefficiency of gypsum as a ma- 
nure on acid soils, ... 

The mode of operation of gypsum as yet unknown, 92. 
Gypsum would be decomposed by oxalic acid, and the 
probability of such efiect in all acid soils, 92. The sup- 
posed chemical action when these substances meet in 
eojl, and the results, 93. 

Note K. 

Estimates of the cost of labor applied to marling, 92 

The only proper grounds for such estimates, 93. Cost of 
the labor of a negro man by the year and day, 93. Of a 
woman— boy— girl, 94. Of a horse— mule— utensils. 



92 



92 



&4— applied to marlii>g operations, 04 to 96— and on 
a large scale, 97. 

Note M. 

Estimates of the expense of using water-borne 
inarl, and lime for manure, • - - 97 

Cost of shells, and the labor of burning and applyu^g the 
lime, 97. Of transporting marl by water, actual opera- 
tions through 1833, 97, 98. Comparative value and ex- 
pense of lime and marl, 98. Expense of a second year's 
operations in transporting marl by water, 99. Effects of 
liming and marling compared, as tested by experiment, 

Note N. 

Proofs of the effect of calcareous earth in pre- 
venting disease, .... joo 

The streets of Mobile shelled, 100. Healthiness of the 
southern calcareous prairies, 100, 101. The former un- 
hcalthiness of Mobile, and the change produced by shell- 
ing the streets and other causes, 101, 102. 

Note O. 

Discovery of magnesian marl in the granite and 
coal region of Virginia, ... i(jg 

Discovery, description, and chemical composition of tlie 
magnesian marl, 103. 

Tables showing the number of spaces contained 
in an acre, at various distances, - -v 103 

For regulating the quantity of marl, lime, or other ma- 
nures applied, 103. For planting, 104. 

Note S. 

Discoveries of the "Gypseous earth," or green sand 
formation of Virginia, .... iqq 

First discovery of gypsum and gypseous earth in Prince 
George, Va. 105. Supposed origin, and chemical compo- 
sition, and elfects as manure, 106, 107. Reasons for 
supposing the gypseous earth and green "Jersey marl," 
to be the same, 108, 109. Discovery of grccii sajid m 
James City, and York, 109. Description of, 110. Chem- 
ical compositioii of New Jersey green sand [called 
marl,] and effects as manure, 111, 112. Further obser- 
vations on the green sand and the lower tertiary forma- 
tion of Virginia, 112, 113. General description smd h>. 
calities, 114, 115» Fossils belonging to this formation. 
116. 



I3SSAY 



OAI«CIAm^OUB MAlfUHEB 



PART I — Theore/. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL nESCRlPTION OF EARTHS AXD 
SOILS. 

It is very necessary that we should correctly 
distinguish earths and soils and their many varie- 
ties: yet these terras are continually misapplied — 
and even Hmono; authors of high authority, no 
two agree in their definitions, or modes of classifi- 
cation. Where such differences exist, and no one 
known method is so free from material imperfec- 
tions, as to be referred to as a common standard, it 
becomes necessary for every one who treats of 
soils, to define for himself— though perhaps he is 
thereby adding to the general mass of confusion 
already existing. This necessity must be my 
apology for whatever is new or unauthorized in 
the following definitions. 

The earths important to agriculture, and which 
form nearly the whole of the known globe, are 
only three — silicinus aluminous, and calcareous. 

SilicioKS earths, in its state of absolute purity, 
forms rock crystal. The whitest and purest sand 
may be considered as silicious earth in agricuhure, 
though none is presented by nature entirely free 
from other ingredients. It is composed of very 
hard particles, not soluble in any common acid, 
and which cannot be made coherent by mixing 
ivith water. Any degree of coherence, or any 
shade of color that sand may exhibit, is owing to 
the presence of other substances. The solidity of 
tlie particles of sand renders f hem impenetrable to 
water, which passes between them as through a 
sieve. The hardness of its particles, and tlieir 
loose arrangement, make sand incapable of ab- 
sorbing moisture from the atmosphere, or of re- 
taining any valuable vapor or fluid, with which it 
may have been in any manner supplied. Sdicious 
earth is also quickly heated by the sim, which 
adds to the rapidity with which it loses moisture. 

yiluminoiis or argillaceous earth, when dry, ad- 
heres to the tongue, absorbs water rapidly and 
abundantly, and when wet, forms a tough paste, 
smooth and soapy to the touch. By burning it 
becomes as hard as stone. Clays derive their ad- 
hesiveness from their proportion of aluminous 
earth. This also is white when pure, but is gene- 
rally colored deeply and variously — red, yellow, or 
blue — by metallic substances. When drying, 
aluminous earth shrinks greatly — it becomes "a 
mass ot very hard lumps, of various sizes, sepa- 
rated by cracks and fissures, which become so 
many little reservoirs of standing water, when 
filled bv rains, and remaiij so, until the lumps, by 
2 



slowly imbibing the A^Titer, are distended enough 
to fill the space occupied before. 

Calcareous earth, or carbonate of Ume^* is lime 
combined with carbonic acid, and may be convert- 
ed into pure or quick-lime by heat — and quick- 
lime, by exposure to the air, soon returns to its 
former state of calcareous earth. It forms marble, 
hmestone, chalk, and shells, with very small ad- 
mixtures of other substances. Thus the term 
calcareous earth will not be used here to include 
either lime m its pure state, or anj^ of the numer- 
ous combinations which lime forms with the va- 
rious acids, except that one (carbonate of lime) 
which is beyond comparison the most abundant 
throughout the world, and most important as an 
ingredient of soils. Pure lime attracts all acids so 
powerfully, that it is never j^resented by nature ex- 
cept in combination with some one of them, and 
generally witii the carbonic acid. When this 
compound is thrown into any stronger acid, as 
muriatic, nitric, or even strong vinegai' — the lime 
being more powerfully attracted, unites with, and 
is dissolved by the stronger acid, and lets go the 
carbonic, which escapes, with effervescence, in the 
form of air. In this manner, the carbonate of 
lime, or calcareous earth, may not only be easily 
distinguished from silicious, and aluminous earth, 
but also from all other combinations of lime. [See 
Appendix A.f] 



* Carbonate of lime is the chemical name for the 
substance formed by the combination of carbonic acid 
with lime. The names of all the thousands of different 
substances {neutral salts) which are formed by the 
combination of each of the manj/ acids with each of 
the various earths, alkalis, and metals, are formed by 
one uniform rule, which is as simple and easy to be un- 
derstood and remembered, as it is useful. To avoid 
repeated explanations in the course of this essay, the 
rule will now be stated by which these compounds are 
named. The termination of the name of the acid is 
changed to the syllable ate, and then prefixed to the 
particular earth, alkali, or metal with which the acid 
is united. With this explanation, any reader can at once 
understand what is meant by each of some thousands 
of terms, none of which mioht have been heard of be- 
fore, and which (without this manner of being named) 
would be too numerous to be fixed in the most reten- 
tive memory. Thus, it will be readily understood 
that the carbonate of magnesia is a compound of the 
carbonic acid and magnesia — the sulphate of lime, a 
compound of sulphuric acid and lime — the sulphate of 
iron, a compound of sulphuric acid and iron — and in 
like manner for all other terms so formed. 

t The note referred to in the appendix A, will sup- 
ply some remarks and explanations which a scientific 
reader would correctly consider as a deficiency if en- 
tirely omitted, but which, if added to the text above, 



10 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



Calcareous earth in its different fornfis has been 
supposed to compose as much as one-eighth part ol' 
the crust of the globe.* Very extensive plains in 
France and England are of chalk, pure enough to 
be nearly barren, and to prove that pure calcareous 
earth would be entirely so. No chalk is to be 
found in our country — and it is only Irom Euro- 
pean authors that we can know any thing of its 
agricultural characters, when nearly pure, or when 
lorming a very large proportion of the suriiice of 
the land. The whiteness of chalk repels the rays 
of the sun, while its loose particles permit water to 
pass through, as easily as sandif and thus calca- 
reous earth is remarkable for possessing some of 
the worst qualities of both the other earths, and 
which it serves to cure in them (as will hereafter 
be shown) when used as a manure. 

Most of those Avho have applied chemistry to 
agriculture, consider magnesia as one of the im- 
portant earths. J Magnesia, like lime, is never 
Ibund pure, but always combined with some acid, 
and its most general form is the carbonate of 
magnesia. But even in this, its usual and natural 
state, it exists in such very small quantities in 
soils, and is found so rarely, that its name seems a 
useless addition to the list of the earths of agricul- 
ture. For all practical purposes, gypsum (though 
only another combination of lime,) would more 
properly be arranged as a distinct earth, or ele- 
ment of soils, as it is found in far greater abun- 
dance and purity, and certainly affects some soils 
and plants in a far more important manner than 
has yet been attributed to magnesia, in its natural 
form. 

All the earths, when as pure as they are ever 
furnished by nature, are entirely barren, as might 
be inferred from the description of their qualities: 
nor Avould any addition of putrescent manures§ 
enable either of the earths to support healthy ve- 
getable life. 

The mixture of the three earths in due propor- 
tions, will correct the defects of all, and with a 
sufHciency of animal or vegetable matter, putres- 
cent, and soluble in water, a soil is formed in 
which plants can extend their roots freely, yet be 
firmly supported, and derive all their needful sup- 
plies of air, water, and warmth, without being 
oppressed by too much of either. Such is the na- 
tural surface of almost all the habitable world: and 
though the qualities and value of soils are as va- 
rious"as the proportions of their ingredients are in- 
numerable, yet they are mostly so constituted, that 
no one earthly ingredient is so abundant, but that 
the texturelT of the soil is mechanically suited to 



would have been useless and perhaps embarrassing to 
readers in general. 

* Cleaveland's Mineralogy — On Carbonate of Lime. 
I Cours Complet d'Agriculture, etc. par I'Abbe 
Rozier — Terres. 

X Davy's Agr. Chem. page 110. Phil. Ed. 1821. 

§ Putrescent or enriching manures, are those formed 
of vegetable and animal matters, capable of putrefy- 
ing, and thereby furnishing soluble food to plants. 
Farm-yard and stable manure, and the weeds and other 
growth of the fields left to die and rot on them, are al- 
most the only enriching manures that have been used as 
yet in this country. 

IT The texture of a soil means the disposition of its 
parts, which produces such sensible qualities, as being 
close, adhesive, open, friable, &c. 



some one valuable crop — as some plants require a 
degree of closeness, and others of openness in the 
soil, which would cause other plants to decline or 
perish. 

Soil seldom extends more than a few inches be- 
low the surface, as on the surface only are received 
those natural supplies of vegetable and animal 
matters, which are necessary to constitute soil. 
Valleys subject to inundation have soils brought 
from higher lands, and deposited by the water, 
and therefore are of much greater depth. Below 
the soil is the subsoil, which is also a mixture of 
two or more earths, but is as barren as the unmix- 
ed earths, because it contains very little putrescent 
matter, the only food for plants. 

The (jualities and value of soils depend on the 
proportions of their ingredients. We can easily 
comprehend in what manner silicious and alumin- 
ous earths, by their mixture, serve to cure the de- 
fects of each other — the open, loose, thirsty, and 
hot nature of sand being corrected by, and correct- 
ing in turn, the close, adhesive, and water holding 
qualities of aluminous earth. This curative ope- 
ration is merely mechanical — and in that manner 
it seems likely that calcareous earth, when in large 
proportions, also acts, and aids the corrective pow- 
ers of both the other earths. This however is 
only supposition, as I have met with scarcely any 
such natural soil. 

But besides the mechanical effects of calcareous^ 
earth, (which perhaps are weaker than those of 
the other two,) that earth has chemical powers far 
more effectual in altering the texture of soils, and 
for which a comparatively small quantity is amply 
sufficient. The chemical action of calcareous 
earth as an ingredient of soils, will be fully treated 
of hereafter: it is only mentioned in this place to 
avoid the apparent contradiction which might be 
inferred, if, in a general description of calcareous 
earth, I had omitted all allusion to qualities that 
will afterwards be brought forward as all import- 
ant. 

It seems most proper to class and name soils ac- 
cording to their predo7tiinant earthy ingredients, by 
which term, I mean those ingredients which exert 
the greatest power, and most strongly mark the 
character of the soil. The predominant ingre- 
dient (in this sense,) is not always the most abun- 
dant, and frequently is the least. If the most 
abundant was considered the predominant ingre- 
dient, and gave its name to the soil,* then almost 
every one should be called silicious, as that earth is 
seldom equalled in quantity by all the others 
united. If the earthy parts of a soil were two- 
thirds silicious, and one-third of aluminous earth, 
the peculiar qualities of the smaller ingredient 
would predominate over the opposing qualities of 
the sand, and the mixture would be a tenacious 
clay. If the same soil had contained only one- 
twentieth part of calcareous earth, that ingredient 
would have had more marked effects on the soil, 
than could have been produced by either doubling, 
or diminishing to half their quantity, the silicious 
and aluminous earths,, which formed the great 
bulk of the soil. If soils were named according to 
certain proportions of their ingredients, (as pro- 
posed by Davy,t) a correct, though limited ana- 

* Which is the plan of the nomenclature of soils 
proposed by Rozier— See article ''Terres," Coura 
Complet d'Agriculture, etc. j Agr. Chem. p. 139, 



PART I— THEORY. 



11 



lysis of a soil would be required, before its name 
or characte-r could be given — and even then the 
name and character would often disagree. But 
every farmer can know what are the most marked 
good or bad qualities of his soils, as showMi under 
tillage, and those qualities can be easily traced to 
their predominant ingredients. By compounding 
a lew terms, various shades of difference may be 
designated with sufficient precision. A few ex- 
amples will be sufficient to show how all may be 
applied:— 

A silicioiis or sandy soil has such a proportion of 
silicious earth as to show more ol" its peculiar pro- 
perties than those of any other ingredient. It 
would be more or less objectionable for its loose- 
ness, heat, and want of power to retain either 
moisture or putrescent manure — and not for tough- 
ness, liability to become hard after wet ploughing, 
or any other quality of aluminous earth. 

In like manner, an aluminoiis or clayey soil, 
would show most strongly the faults of aluminous 
earth, though more than half its bulk might be of 
silicious. 

The tenn loam is not essential to this plan, but it 
is convenient, as it will prevent the necessity of 
frequent compounds of other terms. It will be 
used for all soils formed with such proportions of 
sand and aluminous earth, as not to be light 
enough to be called sandy, nor stiff enough for 
clay soil. Sandy loam and clayey loam would ex- 
press its two extremes — and loamy sand would be 
still lighter than the former, and loamy clay stifTer 
than the latter. 

In all compound names of soils, the last term 
should be considered as expressing the predomi- 
nant earthy ingredient. Thus, a sandy loamy cal- 
care(nis soil, would be nearer to loam than sand, 
and more marked by its calcareous ingredient than 
either. Other ingredients of soils besides the 
earths, or any accidental or rare quality aflecting 
their character considerably, may be described 
with sufficient accuracy by such additional terms 
as these — aferruginoiis gravelly silicious loam — 
or a vegetable calcareous clay. [Appendix B.] 



CHAPTER II. 



ON THE SOILS, AND STATE OF AGRICULTURE 
OF THE TIDE-WATER DISTRICT OF VIR- 



" During several days of our jour- 

*' ney, no spot was seen that was not covered 
" with a luxuriant growth of large and beautiful 
" forest trees, except where they had been de- 
" stroyed by the natives for the purpose of culti- 
" vation. The least fertile of their pasture lands, 
" without seeding, are soon covered with grass 
" several feet in height; and unless pre\'ented by 
" cultivation, a second growth of trees rapidly 
" springs up, which, without care or attention, at- 
" tain their giant size in half the time that would 

" be expected on the best lands in England." 

If the foregoing description was met with in a 
" Journey through Hindoostan," or some equally 
unknown region^ no European reader would doubt 
but such lands were fertile in the highest degree — 
and even many of ourselves would receive the 
same impression. Yet it is no exaggerated ac- 



count of the poorest natural soils in our own poor 
country, which are as remarkable tor their produ- 
cing luxuriant growths of pines, and broom grass, 
as tor their unproductiveness in every cultivated or 
valuable crop. We are so accustomed to these 
iacts, that we scarcely think of their singularity; 
nor of the impropriety of calling any land barren, 
which will jjroduce a rapid growth of any one 
plant. Indeed, by the rapidity of that growth, (or 
the fitness of the soil for its production.) Ave have 
in some measure formed a standard of the poverty 
of the soil. 

With some exceptions to every general charac- 
ter, the tide-water district of Virginia may be de- 
scribed as generally level, sandy, poor, and free 
from any fixed rock, or any other than stones 
rounded apparently by the attrition of water. On 
much the greater part of the lands, no stone of 
any kind is to be found, of larger size than gravel. 
Pines of different kinds ibrm the greater part of a 
heavy cover to the silicious soils in their virgin 
state, and mix considerably with oaks, and other 
growth of clay land. Both these kinds of soil, 
after being exhausted of their little fertility by cul- 
tivation, and "turned out" to recruit, are soon co- 
vered by young pines which grow with vigor and 
luxuriance. This general description applies more 
particularly to the ridges which separate the slopes 
on different streams. The ridge lands are ahvavs 
level, and very j)oor — sometimes clayey, more 
generally sandy, but stifler than would be inferred 
from the proportion of silicious earth they contain, 
which is caused by the fineness of its particles. 
Whortleberry bushes, as well as pines, are abun- 
dant on ridge lands — and numerous shallow basins 
are found, which are ponds of rain water in winter, 
but dry in summer. None of this large propor- 
tion of our lands, has paid the expense of clearing 
and cultivation, and much the greater part still re- 
mains under its native growth. Enough however 
has been cleared and cultivated in every neigh- 
borhood, to prove its utter worthlessness, under 
common management. The soils of ridge lands 
vary between sandy loam, and clayey loam. It is 
difficult to estimate their general product under cul- 
tivation; but judging from my own experience of 
such soils, the product may be from five bushels of 
corn, or as much of wheat, to the acre, on the most 
cla3'ey soils, to twelve bushels of corn, and three 
of wheat on the most sandy — if wheat were 
there attempted to be made. 

The slopes extend from the ridges to the streams, 
or to the alluvial bottoms, and include the whole 
interval between neighboring branches of the same 
stream. This class of soils forms another great 
body of lands — of a higher grade of fertility, 
though still far from valuable. It is generally 
more sandy than the poorer ridge land, and when 
long cultivated, is more or less deprived of its soil, 
by the washing of rains, on every slight declivity. 
The washing away of three or four inches in 
depth, exposes a steril subsoil (or forms a 
"gall") which continues thenceforth bare of all 
vegetation: a greater declivity of the surface 
serves to form gullies several feet in depth, the 
earth carried from which, covers and injures the 
adjacent lower land. Most of this kind of land 
has been cleared, and greatly exhausted. Its vir- 
gin growth is often more of oak, hickory, and dog- 
wood, than pine — but when turned out of cultiva- 
tion, an unmixed growth ol' pine follows. Land 



12 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



of this kind in general has very little durability; its 
usual best product of corn may be for a iew crops, 
eighteen or twenty bushels — and even as much as 
twenty-five bushels, from the highest grade. 
Wheat is seldom a productive or profitable crop 
on the slopes, the soil being generally too sandy. 
AVhen such soils as these are called rich or valuable 
(as most persons would describe them,) those 
terms must be considered as only comparative — 
and such an application oi them proves that truly 
fertile and valuable soils, are very scarce in Lower 
Virginia. 

The only very rich and durable soils below the 
falls of our rivers, are narrow strips of highland 
along their banks, and the lowlands formed by the 
alluvion of the numerous smaller streams which 
wa.ter our country. These alluvial bottoms, 
though highly productive, are lessened in value by 
bein<T generally too sandy, and by the damage 
they'suffer from being often inundated by floods of 
rain. The best highland soils seldom extend 
more than half a mile ii-om the river's edge — 
sometimes not fifty yards. These irregular mar- 
gins are composed of loams of various qualities, 
but all highly valuable; and the best soils are 
scarcely to be surpassed, in their original fertility, 
and durability under severe tillage. Their nature 
and peculiarities will be again adverted to, and 
more fully described hereafter. 

The simple statement of the general course of 
tillage to which our part of the countiy has been 
subjected, is sufficient to prove that great impover- 
ishment of the soil has been the inevitable conse- 
quence. The small portion of rich river margins, 
Avas soon all cleared, and v/as tilled VA-ithout cessa- 
tion lor many years. The clearing of the slopes 
was next commenced, and is not yet entirely 
completed. On these soils, the succession of crops 
was less rapid, or from necessity, tillage was soon- 
er suspended. If not rich enough for tobacco when 
first cleared, (or as soon as it ceased to be so,) 
land of its kind was planted in corn two or three 
years in succession, and afterwards every second 
year. The intermediate year between the crops 
of corn, the field was "rested" under a crop of 
wheat, if it would produce four or five bushels to 
the acre. If the sandiness, or exhausted condition 
of the soil, denied even this small product of 
wheat, that crop was probably not attempted — 
and instead of it, the field was exposed to close 
grazing, from the time of gathering one crop of 
corn, to that of j)rei)aring to plant another. No 
manure was applied, except on the tobacco lots; 
and this rotation of a grain crop every year, and 
afterwards every second year, was kept up as long 
as the field would produce five bushels of corn to 
the acre. When reduced below that product, and 
to less than the necessary expense of cultivation, 
the land was turned out to recover under a new 
growth of pines. After tv\'enty or thirty years, 
according io the convenience of the owner, the 
Game land would be again cleared, and put under 
similar scourging tillage, which however would 
then much sooner end, as before, in exhaustion. 
Such a general system is not yet every where 
abandoned — and many years have not passed, 
since such was the usual course on almost every 
farm. 

How much our country has been imjioverished 
dunng the last fifty years, cannot be determined 
by any satisfactory testimony. But however we 



may differ on this head, there are but few who will 
not concur in the opinion, that our system of cul- 
livation has been every year lesseningthe productive 
power of our lands in general — and that no one 
county, no neighborhood, and but few particular 
farms, have been at all enriched, since their first 
settlement and cultivation. Yet many of our farming 
operations have been much improved within the last 
fifteen or twenty years. Driven by necessity, propri- 
etors direct more personal attention to their farms — 
better implements of husbandry are used — every 
process is mure perfectly performed — and whether 
well or ill directed, a spirit of inquiry and enter- 
prise has been awakened, which before had no ex- 
istence. 

Throughout the country below the falls, and per- 
haps thiny miles above, it the best land be excluded, 
say one-tenth, the remtuning nine-tenths will not 
yield an average product often bushels of corn to the 
acre; though that grain is best suited to our soils in 
general, and liir exceeds in quantity all other kinds 
raised. Of course, the product of a large proportion 
of the land, would fall below this average. Such 
crops, in very many cases, cannot remunerate the 
cultivator, ll our remaining woodland could be at 
once brought into cultivation, the gross product of 
the country would be greatly increased, but the 
net product very probably diminished — as the 
geneial poverty of these lands would cause more 
expense than profit to accomj3any their cultivation 
under the usual system. Yet every year we are 
using all our exertions to clear woodland, and in 
tact seldom increase either net or gross products 
— because nearly as much old exhausted land 
is turned out of cultivation as is substituted by 
the newly cleared. Sound calculations of profit 
and loss, would induce us to reduce the extent of 
our present cultivation, by turning out every acre 
that yields less than the total cost of its tillage. 

JSo political truth is better established than that 
the population of every country will increase, or 
dimmish, according to its regular supply of food. 
We know from the census ol 1830, compared with 
those of 182U and 1810, that our population is . 
neariy stationary, and in some counties, is actually 
lessening; and therefore it is certain, that our ag- 
riculture IS not increasing the amount of food, or 
the means of purchasing Ibod — with all the assis- 
tance of the new land annually brought under cul- 
ture. In these circumstances, a surplus popula- 
tion, with all its deplorable consequences, is only 
prevented by the great current of emigration which 
is continually flowing westward. Mo matter Avho 
emigrates, or with what motive — the enterprising 
or wealthy citizen who leaves us to seek richer 
lands and greater profits, and the slave sold 
and carried away on account of his owner's poverty, , 
concur in producing the same result, though withi 
very diflierent degrees of benefit to those who re- • 
main. If this great and continued drain from our r 
population was stopped, and our agriculture was ^ 
not improved, want and misery would work to pro- 
duce the same results. Births would diminish, 
and deaths would increase — and hunger and dis- 
ease would keep down population to that number, 
that the average products of our agricultural and 
other labor could feed, and supply with other 
means of living. 

A stranger to our situation and habits might 
well oppose to my statements the very reasonable 
bjection, that no man would, or could, long pur- 



PART I— THEORY. 



13 



Bue a system of cultivation of which the returns 
fell short of his expenses, including rent of land, 
hire of labor, interest on the necessary capital, &c. 
Verj^ true — if he had to pay those expenses out of 
his profits, he would soon be driven from his farm 
to a jail. But we own our land, our laborers, and 
Btock — and though the calculation ol net ]irofit, 
or of loss, is precisely the same, yet we are not 
ruined by making only two per cent, on our cap- 
ital, provided we can manage to live on that in- 
come. If we live on still less, we are actually 
growing richer (by laying up a part of our two 
per cent.,) notwithstanding the most clearly 
proved regular loss on our faranng. 

Our condition has been so gradually growing 
worse, that we are either not aware of the extent 
of the evil, or are in a great measure reconciled 
by custom to profitless labor. No hope for a bet- 
ter state of things can be entertained, until we 
shake off this apathy — this excess ol" contentment 
which makes no effort to avoid existing evils. I 
have endeavored to expose what is worst in our 
eituation as farmers: if it should have the effect of 
rousing any of my countrymen to a sense of the 
absolute necessity of some improvement, to avoid 
ultimate ruin, I hope also to point out to some of 
their number, if not to all, that the means for cer- 
tain and highly profitable improvements, are com- 
pletely within their reach. [Appendix C.] 



CHAPTER III. 

THE DIFFERENT CAPACITIES OF SOILS FOU 
RECEIVING IMPROVEMENT. 

As far as the nature of the subjects permitted, 
the foregoing chapters have been merely explana- 
tory and descriptive. The same subjects will be 
resumed and more fully treated in the course ol 
the following argument, the premises ol' which, 
are the facts and circumstances that have been 
detailed. What I wish to prove will be stated in 
a series of propositions, which will now be pre- 
sented at one view, and atlerwards separately dis- 
cussed in their proper order. 

Proposition 1. Soils naturally poor, and rich 
soils reduced to poverty by cultivation, are essen- 
tially ditferent in their powers of retaining putres- 
cent manures: and under like circumstances, the 
fitness of any soil to be enriched by the.^e manures, 
is in proportion to what was its natural fertility. 

2. The natural sterility of the soils of Lower 
Viririnia is caused by such soils being destitute of 
calcareous earth, and their being injured by the 
l^re^^ence and etiects of vegetable acid. 

3. The fertilizing effects of calcareous earth are 
chieliy produced by its power of neutralizing acids, 
and of combining putrescent manures with soils, 
between which there would otherwise be but little 
iif any chemical attraction.* 



I *When any substance is mentioned as combining 
with one or more other substances, as ditierent manures 
with each other, or with soil, I mean that a union is form- 

; ed by chemical attraction, and not by simple mixture. 
Mixtures are made by mechanical means, and may be 
separated in like manner; but combinations are chemi- 

1 cal, and require some stronger chemical attraction, to 

! take away either of the bodies so united. 

. I When two substances combine, they both lose their 



4- Poor and acid soils cannot be improved du- 
rably, or profitably, by putrescent manures, with- 
out previously n)ak-ingthem calcareous, and there- 
by correcting the defect in their constitution. 

5. Calcareous manures will give to our Avorst 
soils a power of retaining putrescent manures, 
equal to that of the best — and will cause more pro- 
ductiveness, and yield more profit, than any other 
improvement practicable in Lower Virginia. 

Dismissing from consideration, for the present, 
all the others, I shall proceed to maintain the 

FIRST PROPOSITIOJir. 

iSb;7s naturally poor, and rich soils reduced to 
poverty by cultivation, are essentially different in 
their powers of retaining putrescent manures: and 
under like circumstances, the fitness of any soil to 
be enriched by these manures, is in proportion to 
lohat was its natural fertility. 

The natural fertility of -A soil is not intended 
to be estimated by the amount of its earliest pro- 
duct, when first brought undercultivation, because 
several temporary causes then operate either to 
keep down, or to augment the product. If land be 
cultivated immediately afrer the trees are cut down, 
the crop is greatly lessened by the numerous living 
roots, and consequent bad tillage — the excess of 
unrotted vegetable matter, and the coldness of the 
soil, from which the rays of the sun had been so 
long excluded. On the" other hand, if cultivation 
is delayed one or two years, the leaves and othef 
vegetable matters are rotted, and in the best state 
to supply food to plants, and are so abundant, that 
a far better crop will be raised than could have 
been obtained before, or perhaps Avill be again, 
without manure. For these reasons, the deoree 
of natural fertility of any soil should be measured^ 
by its products ailer these temporary causes have 
ceased to act, which will generally take place be- 
fore the third or fourth crop is gathered. Accord- 
ing, then, to this definition, acertnin degree of per- 
manency in its early productiveness, is necessary 
to entitle a soil to be termed naturally fertile. It 
is in this sense, that I deny to any poor lands, ex- 
cept such as were naturally fertile, the capacity of 
being made rich by putrescent manures only. 

The foregoing proposition would by maiiy per- 
sons be so readily admitted as true, that attemptinor 
to prove it would be deemed entirely superfluous^ 
But many others will as strongly deny its truth, 
and can support their opposition by high agricul- 
tural authorities. 

General readers, who may have no connexion 
with farming, must have gathered from the inci- 
dental notices in various literary works, that some 
countries or districts that were noted for their un- 
common fertility or barrenness, as far back as any 
accounts of them have been recorded, still retain 
the same general character, through every chano-e 
of policy, government, and even of the race "of 



previous peculiar qualities, or neui rati zc them for each 
other, and form a third substance different from both. 
Thus, if certain known proportions of muriatic acid, 
and pure or caustic soda, be brought together, their 
strong attraction will cause them to combine imme- 
diately. The strong corrosive acid quality of the one, 
and the equally peculiar alkaline taste and powers of 
the other, will neutralize or entirely destroy each other 
— and the compound Ibrmed, is common salt, the quali- 
ties of which areasstrongly marked, but totally differ- 
ent from those of either of its constituent parts. 



14 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



"nhabitants. They know that for some centuries 
at least, there has been no change in the strong 
contrast between the barrenness of Norway, Bran- 
denburg, and the Highlands of Scotland, and the 
fertility of Lonibardy and Valencia. Sicily, not- 
withstanding its government is calculated to dis- 
courage industry, and production of every profita- 
ble kind, still exhibits that lertility for which it was 
celebrated two thousand years ago. It seems a 
necessary inference from the many statements of 
which these are examples, that the labors of man 
have been but of little avail in altering perma- 
nently the characters and qualities given to soils 
by nature. 

Most of our experienced practical cultivators, 
through a different course, have arrived at the 
same conclusion. Their practice has taught them 
the truth of this proposition — and the opinions thus 
formed have profiuibly directed their most impor- 
tant operations. The}' are accustomed to estimate 
the worth oi' land by its natural degree of fertility 
—and by the same rule they are directed on what 
soils to bestow their scanty stock of manure, and 
where to expect exhausted fields to recover by rest, 
and then- own unassisted powers. But content 
with knowing the fact, this uselul class of farmers 
have never inquired for its cause — and their opin- 
ions on this subject, as on most others, have not 
been communicated so as to benefit others. 

But if all literary men who are not farmers, and 
all practical cultivators who seldom road, admitted 
the truth of my proposition, it wouUl avail but 
little for improving our agricultural ojierations — 
and the only prospect of its being usefiiUy dissem- 
inated, is tlirough that class of farmers who have 
received their first opinions of improving soils, 
from books, and whose subsequent plans and prac- 
tices have grown out of those opinions. If poor 
natural soils cannot be durably or profitably im- 
proved by putrescent manures, this truth should 
not only be known, but be kept constandy in view, 
by every farmer who can hope to improve with 
success. Yet it is a remarkable fact, that the 
difference in the capacities of soils for receiving 
improvement, has not attracted the attention of 
scientific fiirmers — and the doctrine has no direct 
and positive support from the author of any trea- 
tise on agriculture, English or American, that I 
have been able to consult. On the contrary, it 
seems to be considered by all of them, that to col- 
lect and apply as much vegetable and animal 
manure as possible, is sufficient ro ensure profit to 
every larmer, and fertility to every soil. They do 
not tell us that numerous exceptions to that rule 
will be found, and that many soils of apparent 
good texture, if not incapable of being enriched 
from the barn-yard, would at least cause more loss 
than clear profit, by being improved from that 
source. 

When it is assumed that the silence of every 
distinguished author as to certain soils being inca- 
pable of being profitably enriched, amounts to ig- 
norance of tlie fact, or a" tacit denial of its truth — 
it may be objected that the exception Avas not 
omitted from either of these causes, but because it 
was established and undoubted. This is barely 
possible: but even if such was the case, their si- 
lence has had all the ill consequences that could 
have grown out of a positive denial of any excep- 
tions to the propriety of manuring poor soils. 
Every zealous young farmer, who draws most of 



his knowledge and opinions from books, adopts 
precisely the same idea of their directions — and if 
he owns barren soils he probably throws away his 
labor and manure for their improvement, tor years, 
beibre experience compels him to abandon his 
hopes, and acknowledge that his guides have led 
him only to failure and loss. Such farmers as I 
allude to, by their enthusiasm and spirit of enter- 
prise, are capable of rendering the most important 
benefits to agriculture. Whatever may be their 
impelling motives, the public derives nearly all the 
benefit of their successful plans — and their tar more 
numerous misdirected labors, and consequent dis- 
appointments, are productive of national, still more 
than individual loss. The occurrence of only a 
few such mistakes, made by reading farmers, will 
serve to acquit me of combating a shadow — and 
there are lew of us who cannot recollect some such 
examples. 

But if the foregoing objection has any weight 
in justifying European authors in not naming this 
exception, it can have none for those of our own 
country." If it is admitted tiiat soils naturally poor 
are incapable of being enriched with profit, that 
admission must cover three- fourths of all the high- 
land in the tide-water district. Surely no one will 
contend that so sweeping an exception was silent- 
ly understood by the author of Arator, as qualify- 
ing his exhortations to improve our lands: and if I 
no such exception was intended to be made, then i 
will his directions for enriching soils, and his; 
promises of reward, be found equally fallacious, , 
for the greater portion of the country, to benefiti 
which his work was specially intended. The 
omission of any such exception by the writers ofi 
the United States, is the more remarkable, as the 
land has been so recently brought under cultiva 
tion, that the original degree of fertility of almost 
every farm may be known to its owner, and com 
paired with the after progress of" exhaustion on 
improvement. 

Many authorities might be adduced to prov 
that I iiave correctly stated what is the fair and 
only inference to be drawn from agricultural books,; 
respecting the capacity of poor soils to receive im- 
provement. But a few of the most strongly 
marked passages in Arator will be fiilly sufficient 
for this purpose. The venerated author of that 
work was too well acquainted with the writings of 
European agriculturists, to have mistaken their 
doctrines in this important particular. A large 
portion of his useful life was devoted to the suc- 
cessfijl imnrovement of exhausted, but originally 
fertile lands. His instructions for producing simi 
lar improvements are expressly addressed to the 
cultivators of the eastern paiis of Virginia and 
North Carolina, and are giv-en as applicable to all 
our soils, without exception. Considering all 
these circumstances, the conclusions which are 
evidently and unavoidably deduced from his work, 
may be fairly considered, not only as supported bj 
his own experience, but as concurring with the 
general doctrine of improving poor soils, maintain- 
ed by previous writers. 

At page 54, third edition of Arator, "■inclosing' 
(i. e. leaving fields to receive their own vegeta- 
ble cover, for their improvement during the years 
of r"st,) is said to be "the most powerful means o^ 
fertilizing the earth" — and the process is declarecj 
to be rapid, the returns near, and the gain great. 
Page 61. "If these few means of ferlilizing 



PART I— THEORY. 



15 



" the country [cornstalks, straw, and animal dung,] 
" were skili'ully used, the}? would of themselves 
" sulfice to chano;e its state from sterility to fruit- 
" fulness. " — " By the litter of Indian corn, and of 
" small grain, and of penning cattle, managed 
" with only an inferior degree of skill, in union 
" with inclosing, I will venture to affirm that a 
" farm may in ten years be made to double its 
" produce, and in twenty to quadruple it. " 

No opinions could be more strongly or uncondi- 
tionally expressed than these. No reservation or 
exception is made. I may safely appeal to each 
of the many hundreds who attempted to obey 
these instructions, to declare whether any one 
considered his own naturally poor soils excluded 
irom the benefit of these promises — or whether a 
lithe of that benefit was realized on any farm 
composed generally of such soils. In a field of 
mine that has been secured from grazing since 
1814, and cultivated on the lour shift rotation, the 
produce of a marked spot has been measured 
every fourth year (when in corn) since 1820. 
The difference of product has been such as the 
differences of season might have caused — and the 
last crop (in 1828) was worse than those of either 
of the two preceding rotations. There is no rea- 
son to believe that even the smallest increase of i 
productive power has taken place. I 

It is far from my intention, by these remarks, to 
deny the propriety, or to question the highly ben- 
eficial results, of applying the system of improve- 
ment recommended by Arator, to soils orio-inally 
fertile. On the contrary, it is as much my object 
to maintain the facility of restoring to worn lands 
their natural degree of fertility, by vegetable ap- 
plications, as it is to deny the power of exceeding 
that degree, however low it may have been. 

One more quotation will be offered, because its 
recent date and the source whence it is derived, 
furnish the best proof that it is still the received 
opinion among agricultural writers, that all soils 
may be profitably improved, by putrescent ma- 
nures. An article in the jimerican Farmer, of 
October 14th, 1831, on "manuring large farms," 
|by the editor, contains the following expressions. 

j" ^ By proper exertions, every farm in the 

I" United States can be manured with less expense 
i^' than the surplus profits arising from the manure 
■" would come to. This we sincerely believe, and 
«' we have arrived at this conclusion from long 
" and attentive observation. We never yet saw 
" a fiirm that we could not point to means of ma- 
" nuring, and bring into a state of high and pro- 
" fitable cultivation at an expense altogether in- 
" considerable when contrasted with the advan- 
■' tages to be derived from it." The remainder of 
the article shows that putrescent manures are 
principally relied on to produce these effects: 
marsh and swamp mud are the only kinds referred 
to that are not entirely putrescent in their action, 
and mud certainly cannot be used to manure 
jveryfarm. Mr, Smith, having been long the 
conductor of a valuable agricultural journal, as a 
natter of course, is extensively acquainted with 
he works and opinions of the best writers on ag- 
•iculture; and therefore, his advancing the fore- 
going opinions, as certain and undoubted, is as 
much a proof of the general concurrence of pre- 
ceding writers, as if the same had been given as a 
ligest of their precepts. 
. Some persons will readily admit the great difTer- 



ence in the capacities of soils for improvement, but 
consider a deficiency of clay only to cause the 
want of power to retain manures. The general 
excess of sand in our poor lands might warrant 
this belief in a superficial and limited observer. 
But though clay soils are more rarely met with, 
they present, in proportion to their extent, full as 
much poor land. The most barren and worthless 
soils in the county of Prince George, are also the 
siiffest. A poor clay soil, will retain manure long- 
er than a poor sandy soil — but it will not the less 
certainly lose its acquired fertility at a somewhat 
later period. When it is considered that a much 
greater quantity of manure is required by clay 
soils, it may well be doubted whether the improve- 
ment of the sandy soils would not be attended with 
more profit — or more properly sjjeaking, with less 
actual loss. 

It is true that the capacity of a soil for improve- 
ment is greatly affected by its texture, shape of 
the surfiice, and its supply of moisture. Drj^-, level, 
clay soils, will retain manure longer, than if they 
were sandy, hilly, or wet. But however import- 
ant these circumstances may be, neither the pre- 
sence or absence of any of them can cause the 
differences of capacity for improvement. There 
are rich and valuable soils with one or more of all 
these faults — and there are soils the least capable 
of receiving improvement, free from objection as 
to their texture, degree of moisture, or inclination 
of their surface. Indeed the great body of our 
poor ridge lands, is more free fi-om faults of this 
kind, than soils of far greater productiveness usu- 
ally are. Unless then some other and far more 
powerful obstacle to improvement exists, why 
should not all our woodland be highly enriched, by 
the hundreds, or thousands, of crops of leaves 
which have successively fallen and rotted there? 
Notwithstanding this vegetable manuring, which 
infinitely exceeds all that the industry and pa- 
tience of man can possibly equal, most of our 
woodland remains poor — and this one fact (which 
at least is indisputable,) ought to satisfy all of the 
impossibility of enriching such soils by putrescent 
manures only. Some few acres may be highly 
improved, by receiving all the manure derived 
from the offal of the whole farm — and entire 
farms, in the neighborhood of towns, may be kept 
rich by continually applying large quantities of 
purchased manures. But no where can a farm 
be found, which has been improved beyond its 
original fertility, by means of the vegetable re- 
sources of its own arable fields. If this opinion is 
erroneous, nothing is easier than to prove my mis- 
take, by adducing undoubted examples of such 
improvements having been made. 

But a few remarks will suffice on the capacity 
for improvement of worn lands, which were ori- 
ginally fertile. With regard to these soils, I have 
only to concur in the receiv^ed opinion of their fit- 
ness for durable and profitable improvement by 
putrescent manures. After being exhausted by 
cultivation, they will recover their productive pow- 
er, by merely being left to rest for a sufficient time, 
and receiving the manure made by nature, of the 
weeds and otlier plants that grow and die upon the 
land. Even if robbed of the greater part of that 
supply, by the grazing of animals, a still longer 
time will serve to obtain the same result. The 
better a soil was at first, the sooner it will recover 
by these means, or by artificial manuring. On 



16 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



eoils of this kind, the labors of the improving lar- 
mer meet with succe?s and reward — and when- 
ever we hear of remarkable improvements of poor 
land by putrescent manures, further inquiry will 
show us that these poor lands had once been rich. 
The continued fertility of certain countries for 
?iundreds or even thousands of years, does not 
prove that the land could not be, or had not been, 
exhausted by cultivation: but only that it was 
slow to exhaust and rapid in recovering — so that 
Avhatever repeated changes may have occurred in 
each particular trad, the whole country taken to- 
gether always retained a high degree of produc- 
tiveness. Still the same rule will apply to the 
richest and the poorest soils — that each exerts 
strongly a tbrce to retain as much fertility as nature 
gave them — and that when worn and reduced, 
each may easily be restored to its origmal state, 
but cannot be raised higher, with either durability 
or profit by putrescent manures, whether applied 
by the bounty of nature, or the industry of man. 



CHAPTER IV. 

3EFFECTS OF THE PRESENCE OF CALCAREOtJS 
EARTH IN SOILS. 

Proposition 2. The natural sterility of the 
soils of Loicer Virginia is caused by such soils 
being destitute of calcareous earth, and their be- 
ing injured by the presence and effects of vegeta- 
ble acid. 

The means which would appear the most likely 
to lead to the causes of the different capacities of 
soils for improvement, is to inquire whether any 
known ingredient or ([uality is always to be found 
belonging to improvable soils, and never to the un- 
improvable — or which always accompanies the 
latter, and never the former kind. If either of 
these results can be obtained, we will have good 
ground for supposing that we have discovered the 
general cause of fertility, in the one case — or of 
barrenness, in the other: and it will follow, that if 
we can supply to barren soils the deficient bene- 
ficial ingredient — or can destroy that which is in- 
jurious to them — that their incapacity for receiving 
improvement vdll be removed. All the common 
ingredients of soils, as sand, clay, or gravel — and 
such qualities as moisture or dryness — a level, or 
a hilly surface — however they may affect the va- 
lue of soils, are each sometimes found exhibited in 
a remarkable degree, in both the fertile and the 
steril. The abundance of putrescent vegetable 
matter might well be considered the cause of fer- 
tility, by one who judged only from lands long un- 
der cultivation. But "though vegetable matter in 
sufficient quantity is essential to'the existence of 
fertility, yet will this substance also be found inad- 
equate, as its cause. Vegetable matter abounds 
in all rich land, it is admitted; but it has also been 
furnished by nature, in quantities exceedino- all 
computation, to the most barren soils we own. 

But there is one ingredient of which not the 
smallest prop.ortion can be found in any of our 
poor soils, and which, wherever found, indicates a 
soil remarkable for natural and durable fertility. 
This is calcareous earth. These facts alone, if sus- 
tained, will go far to prove that this earth is the 
cause of fertility, and the cure for barrenness. 



On some part of most farms touching tide- 
water, either muscle or oyster shells are found 
mixed with the soil. Oyster shells are confined to 
the lands on salt water, where they are very abun- 
dant, and sometimes extend through large fields. 
Higher up the rivers, muscle shells only are to be 
seen thus deposited by nature, and they decrease 
as we approach the falls of the rivers. The pro- 
portion of shelly land in the counties highest on 
tide-water, is very small — but the small extent of 
these spots does not prevent, but rather aids, the 
investigation of the peculiar qualities of such soils. 
Spots of shelly land, not exceeding a few acres in 
extent, could not well have been cultivated difier- 
ently from the balance of the fields of which they 
formed parts — and therefore they can be better 
compared with the worse soils under like treat- 
ment. Every acre of shelly land is, or has been, 
remarkable for its richness, and still more lor its 
durability. There are few farmers among us who 
have not heard described tracts of shelly soil on 
Nansemond and York Rivers, which are cele- 
brated for their long resistance of the most ex- 
hausting system of tillage, and which still remain 
fertile, notwithstanding all the injury which they 
must have sustained from their severe treatment. 
We are told that on some of these lands, corn has 
been raised every successive year, without any 
help from manure, for a longer time than the 
owners could remember, or could be informed of, 
correctly. But without relying 'on any such re- 
markable cases, there can be no (ioubt but that every 
acre of our shelly land has been at least as much 
tilled, and as little manured, as any in the country; 
and that it is still the richest and most valuable of 
all our old cleared land. 

The fertile but narrow strips along the banks of 
our rivers, (which form the small portion of our 
highland of first rate quality,) seldom extend far 
without exhibiting spots in which shells are visi- 
ble, so that the eye alone is sufficient to prove the 
soil of such places to be calcareous. The similari- 
ty of natural growth, and of all other marks of I 
character arc such, that the observer might very 
naturally infer that the former presence of shells 
had given the same valuable qualities to all these 
soils — but that they had so generally rotted, and 
been incorporated with the other earths, that they 
remained visible only in a few places, where they 
had been most abundant. The accuracy of this 
inference will hereafter be examined. 

The natural growth of the shelly soils, (and of i 
those adjacent of similar value,) is entirely differ- 
ent from that of the great body of our lands. 
Whatever tree thrives well on the one, is seldom 
found on the other class of soils — or if found, it 
shows plainly by its imperfect and stunted con- 
dition, on how unfriendly a soil it is placed. To 
the rich river margins are almost entirely confined 
the black or wild locust, hackberry or sugar nut 
tree, and papaw. The locust is with great diffi- 
culty eradicated, or the newer growths kept under 
on cultivated lands; and from the remarkable ra- 
pidity with which it springs up, and increases in 
size, it forms a serious obstacle to the cultivationi 
of the river banks. Yet on the woodland only a 
mile or two from the river, not a locust is to be^ 
seen. On shelly soils, pines and broom grass can- 
not thrive, and are rarely able to maintain even 
the most sickly growth. 

Some may say that these striking differences ot 



PART I— THEORY. 



17 



growth do not so much show a difference in the 
constitution of the soils, as in their state of fertility 
— or that one class of tiie |)lants above named de- 
lights in rich, and the other, in poor land* No 
plant prefijrs poor to rich soil — or can thrive better 
an a scarcity of food, than with an abundant sup- 
ply; Pine, broom grass, and sorrel, delight in a 
ilass of soils that are generally unproductive — but 
not on account of their poverty — for all these plants 
show, by the greater or less vigor of their growth, 
the abundance or scarcity of vegetable matter in 
the soil. But on this class of soils, no quantity of 
vegetable manure could make locusts flourish, 
though they will grow rai)idly on a calcareous hill- 
side, from whicli all the soil capable of supporting 
other plants, has been washed away. 

tn thus describing and distinguishing soils by 
their growth, let me not be understood as extend- 
ing those rules to other soils and climates than our 
own. It is well established that changes of kind 
in successive growths of timber have occurred in 
other places, without any known cause — and a 
difference of climate will elsewhere produce ef- 
fects, which here would indicate a change of soil. 

Some rare exceptions to the general fertility of 
ehelly lands are found where "the proportion of 
calcareous earth is in great excess. Too much of 
this ingredient causes even a gi-eater degree of 
sterility than ita total absence. This cause of bar- 
renness IS very common in France and England 
(on chalk soils,) and very extensive tracts are not 
worth the expense of cultivation, or improvement. 
The tew small spots that arc rendered barren here, 
are seldom (if ever) so affected by the excess of 
oyster or muscle shells in the soil. These effects 
generally are caused by beds of fossil sea shells, 
which in some places reach the surface, and are 
thus exposed to the plough. These spots are not 
often more than thirty feet across, and their nature 
is generally evident to the eye; and if not, is so 
easily determined by chemical tests, as to leave 
no reason for confounding the injurious and bene- 
ficial effects of calcareous earth. This exception 
to the general fertilizing eflect of this ingredient of 
our soils, would scarcely require naming, but to 
mark what might be deemed an apparent contra- 
iEction. But this exception, and its cause, must 
be kept in mind, and considered as always under- 
stood and admitted throughout all my remarks, 
and which therefore it is not necessary to name 
specially, when the general qualities of calcareous 
earth are spoken of^ 

In the beginning of this chapter, I advanced the 
important fact that none of our poor soils contain 
naturally the least particle of calcareous earth. So 
far, this is supported merely by my assertion — and 
all those who have studied agriculture in books, 
will require strong proof before they can give cre- 
dit to the existence of a fact, which is cither un- 
supportedj or indirectly denied, by all written au- 
thority. Others, who have not attended to such 
descriptions of soils in general, may be too ready 
to admit the truth of my assertion — because, not 
knowing the opinions on this subject heretofore 
received and undoubted, they would not be aware 
of the importance of their admission. 

It is true that no author has said expressly that 
every soil contains calcareous earth. Neither has 
any one stated that every soil contains some sfli- 
'cious, or aluminous earth. But the manner in 
which each has treated of soils and their constitu- 
3 



ent parts, would cause their readers to infer, that 
neither of these three earths is ever entirely want- 
ing—or at least that the entire absence of the cal- 
careous, is as rare as the absence of silicious or 
aluminous earth. Nor are we left to gather this 
opinion solely from indirect testimony, as the fol- 
lowing examples, from the highest authorities, 
will prove. Davy says, "four earths generally 
abound in soils, the aluminous, the silicious, the 
calcareous, and the magnesian"*— and the soils 
of which he states the constituent parts, obtained 
by chemical analysis, as well as those reported by 
Kirwan, and by Young, all contain some propor- 
tion (and generally a large proportion) of calca- 
reous earth. t Kirwan states the component parts 
of a soil which contained thirty-one per cent, of 
calcareous earth, and he supposes that proportion 
neither too little nor too much. J Young mentions 
soils of extraordinary fertility containing seven- 
teen and twenty per cent., besides others with 
smaller proportions of calcareous earth — and says 
that Bergman found thirty per cent, in the best 
soil he examined. IT Rozier speaks still more 
strongly for the general difiusion, and large pro- 
portions of this ingredient of soils. In his general 
description of earths and soils, he gives examples 
of the supposed composition of the three grades 
of soils which he designates by the terms rich, 
good, and middling soils: to the first class he as- 
signs a proportion of one-tenth, to the second, one- 
fourth, and to the last, one-half of its amount, of 
calcareous earth. The fair interpretation of the 
passage is that the author considered these large 
proportions as general, in France — and he gives 
no intimation of any soil entirely without calca- 
reous earth. § 

American writers also suppose the general pre- 
sence of this ingrechent of soil: but their opinions 
on this subject are merely echos of European de- 
scriptions of soils. They seem neither to have 
suspected that so important a difference existed, 
nor to have made the least investigation by actual 
analysis, to sustain the false character thus given 
to the soils of our country. [Appendix JD.] 

With my early impressions of' the nature and 
composition of soils, derived from the general de- 
scriptions given in books, it was with surprise, and 
some distrust, that wdicn first attempting to ana- 
lyze soils, in 1817, I found most specimens desti- 
tute of calcareous earth. The trials Avere repeated 
Avith care and accuracy, on soils from various 
places — until I felt authorized to assert without 



♦Davy's Agr. Chem. Lecture 1. 

t Agr. Chem. Lect. 4.— Kirwan on Manures— and 
Young's Prize Essay on Manures. 

I Kirwan on Manures, article Clayey Loam. 

ir Young's Essay on Manures. 

§ " Composition of soils. Examples of the various 
composition of soils: Rich soil; silicious earth, 2 parts; 
aluminous, 6; calcareous, 1; vegetable earth, [/n//7U(s] 
1; in all, 10 parts. Good soil — silicious, 3 parts; alu- 
minous 4; calcareous 2^; vegetable earth, J of 1 part; 
in all, 10 parts. Middling soil [sol mediocre;] silicious, 
4 parts; aluminous, 1; calcareous, 5 parts, less by 
some atoms of vegetable earth; in all, 10 parts. We 
sea that it is the largest proporhon of aluminous earth, 
that constitutes the greatest excellence of soils; and 
we know that independently of their harmony of com- 
position, they rcqun-e a sufficiency of depth."— From 
the article "jTen-es," in the "Cour Complet d'Agricul' 
ture Pratique, etc. par L'Abbe Rozier, 1815. 



IS 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES, 



fear of contradiction, that no naturally poor soil, 
below the falls of the rivers, contains the smallest 
proportion of calcareous earth. Nor do I believe 
that anj^ exception to this peculiarity of constitu- 
tion can be tbund in any poor soil abgvc the falls: 
but though these are I'ar more extensive and im- 
portant in other respects, they are beyond the dis- 
trict within the limits of wliich I propose to con- 
fine my investigation. 

These results are highly important,, whether 
considered merely as serving to establish my pro- 
position, or as slxowing a radical difference be- 
iwecn most of our soils, and those of the liest cid- 
tivated parts of Europe. Putting aside my argu- 
ment to establish a particular theory of improve- 
ment, the ascertained fact of the universal absence 
of calcai-eous earth in our poor soils leads to this 
conclusion — that profitable as calcareous manures 
have been found to be in countries where the soils 
are^enerally calcareous in some degree, they nmst 
be far more so on our soils that cue qmte destitute 
of that necessary earth. 



CHAPTER V. 

RESULTS OF THE CHEMICAL EXAMIKATTOrfS 
OF VARIOUS SOILS. 

Proposition 2. Continued. 

The certainty of any results of chemical an- 
alysis would be doubted by most persons who 
have paid no attention to the means employed for 
such operations: and their incredulity will be the 
more excusable, when such results are reported by 
one knowing very little of" the science of chemis- 
try, and whose "hmited knowledge was gained 
without aid or instruction, and was sought solely 
with the view of pursuing this investigation. Ap- 
pearing under such disadvantages, it is therefore 
the more incumbent on me to show my claim to 
accuracy, or so to explain my method, as to ena- 
ble others to detect its en-ors, if any exist. To an- 
alyze a specimen of soil completely, requires an 
amount ofscientific acquirement and practical skill, 
to which I make no pretension. But merely to 
ascertain the absence of calcareous earth — or if 
pres^ent, to find its quantity — requires but little 
skill, and less science. 

The methods recommended by different agri- 
cultural chemists for ascertaining the proportion of 
calcareous earth in soils, agree in all material 
points. Their process will be described, and made 
as plain as possible. A specimen of soil of con- 
venient size is dried, pounded, and weighed, and 
then thrown into muriatic acid, diluted with three 
or four times its quantity of water. The acid 
combines with, and dissolves the I'mie of the cal- 
careous earth, and its other ingredient, the car- 
bonic acid, bemg disengaged, rises through the li- 
quid in the form of g-os, or air, and escapes with 
effervescence. After the mixture has been well 
shaken, and has stood until all effervescence is 
over, (the fluid still being somewhat acid to the 
taste, to prove that enough acid had been used, by 
some excess being lefl,) the whole is poured into 
apiece of blotting paper folded so as to fit within a 
glass funnel. The fluid containingthedissolvedhme 
passes through the paper, leaving behind the clay 
and silicious sand, and any other solid matter; over 
which pure water is poured and passed oil' seve- 



ral times, so aa to wash off all remains of the dis- 
solved lime. These filtered washings are added 
to the solution, to all of which is then poured a 
solution of carbonate of potash. The two dis- 
solved salts thus thrown together, (muriate of 
lime, composed of muriatic acid and linie — and 
carbonate of potash, composed of carbonic acid 
and potash,) immediately decompose each other^ 
and Ibrm two new combinations. Tire muriatic 
acid leaves the lime, and combines withtlie potash^ 
for which it has a stronger attraction — and the' 
muriiite of potash thus formed, being a soluble 
salt, remains dissolved and kivisible in the water. 
The lirae and carbonic acid being in contact, wheri 
let loose by their fbnner partners, instantly umtey. 
and form carbonate of lime ^ or calcareous earth;,, 
which being insoluble,^ falls to the bottom, is sep- 
arated by filtering paper, is washed, dried and' 
wciglied, and thus shows the proportion contained 
by the soil.* 

In this process, the carbonic a.cid wliich first 
composed part of the calcareous earthy escapes into 
the air, and another supply is afterwards furnished 
from the decomposition af the carbonate of potash.. 
But this change of one of its ingredients does noS 
after the quantity of the calcareous earth, which is 
always composed of certain invariable proportion^,' 
of its two component parts; and when all the lime 
has tKien precipitated as above directed, it will I 
neee-ssarily be combined with precisely its fii'sti 
quantity of carbonic acid. 

This ojieration is so simple, and the means fori 
conducting it so easy to obtain, that it will gener- 
ally be the most convenient mode for findmg tlie 
proportion of calcareous earth in those manures 
that are known to contain it abundantly, audi 
where an error of a few grains cannot be very 
material. But if a very accurate result is neces- 
sary, this method will not serve, on account of sev- 
eral causes of error which always .occur. Should 
no calcareous earth be present in a soil thus an- 
alyzed, the muriatic acid will take up a small quan- 
tity of aluminous earth, which will be precipitated 
by the carbonate of potash, and without further' 
investigation, would be considered as so much cal- 
ca,reous earth. And if any compounds of lime and 
vegetable acids are present, (which for reasom 
hereafter to be stated, 1 believe to be not uncom 
mon in soils,) some portion of them may be dis 
solved, and appear in the result as carbonate ol 
lime, though not an atom of that substance Avas 
in the soil. Thus, every soil examined by this 
method of precipitation, will yield some small re- 
sult of -what would appear as calcareous earth, 
though actually destitute of such an ingredient, 
The inaccuracies of this method were no doubl 
known (though passed over without notice) by 
Davy, and other men of science who liave re- 
commended its use: but as they considered calca-^ 
reous earth merely as one of the earthy ingredients 
of soil, operating mechanically, (as do sand and- 
clay,) on the texture of the soil, they would scarce- 
ly suppose that a difference of a grain or twc 
could materially affect the practical value of ar 
analysis, or the character of the soil under exam- 
ination. f 



*More full directions for the analysis of soils maj 
be found in Kirwan's Essay on lilanures, Rozier s 
Dictionary, and Davy's Agricultural Chemistry s 
and of calcareous manures in Appendix P2. 

t "Chalks, calcareous marls, or powdered limestone 



PART I— THEORY. 



19 



The pneumatic apparatus proposed by Davy,* 
as another means for showing the proportion of 
calcareous earth in soils, is liable to none of these 
objections; and when some other causes of error 
peculiar to this method, are known and guarded 
against, its accuracy is almost perfect, in ascertain- 
ing the quantity of calcareous earth — to which 
substance alone, its use is Umited. The correct- 
ness of this mode of analysis depends on two well 
established facts in chemistry — 1st, That the 
component parts of calcareous earth always bear 
the same proportion to each other — a.nd these pro- 
portions are as lorly-three parts (by Aveight) of 
carbonic acid, to forty-seven of lime. 2nd. That 
the carbonic acid gas which two grains of calca- 
reous earth will yield, is equal in bulk to one ounce 
of fresh water. The process with the aid of this 
apparatus disengages, confines, and measures the 
gas evolved — and tor every measure equal to the 
bulk of an ounce of water, the operator has only 
to allow two grains of calcareous earth in the f^oil 
acted on. It is evident that the result can indicate 
the presence of lime in no other combination ex- 
cept that which forms calcareous earth — nor of 
any other earth, except carbonate of magnesia, 
which, it present, might be mistaken for calcareous 
earth, but which is too rare, and occurs in propor- 
tions too small, to cause any material error. 

But if it is only desired to knoAV whether calca- 
reous earth is entirely wanting in any soil — or to 
test the truth of my assertion that so great a pro- 
portion of our soils are destitute of that earth — 
it maybe done with far more ease than by either 
of the foregoing methods, and without ap[aratus 
of any kind. Let a handful of the soil (without 
drying or weighing) be thrown into a large drink- 
ing glass, containing enough of pure water to 
cover the soil about two inches. Stir it until all 
the lumps have dis ippcared, and the water has 
certainly taken the place of all the atmospheric 
air which the soil had enclosed. Remove any ve- 
getable fibres,or froth, from the suriace of the li- 
quid, so as to have it clear. Then pour in gently 
about a table .spoonful of undiluted muriatic acid, 
which by its greater weight will sink, and pene- 
trate the soil, without any agitation being neces- 
sary for that purpose. If any calcareous earth is 
present it will quickly begin to combine with the 
acid, 1 browing ofi' its carbonic acid in gas, Avhich 
cannot fail to be observed as it escapes, as the gas 
that only eight grains of calcareous earth w^ould 
throw out, would be equal in bulk to a gill measure. 
Indeed, the product of only a single grain of cal- 
careous earth, would be abundantly plain to the 
eye of the careful operator, though it might be the 
whole amount of gas from two thousand grains of 
soil. If no effervescence is seen even alter adding 
more acid and gently stirring the mixture, then it 
is absoluteh^ certain that the soil contained not the 



" act merely by forming a useful earthy ingredient in the 
" soil, and their efficacy is proportioned to the defirien- 
'" cy of calcareous matter, which in larger or smaller 
■" quantities seems to be an essential ingredient of all 
'"fertile soils; necessaiy perhaps to their proper texture, 
" and as an ingredient in the organs of plants." [Da- 
i" vy's Agr. Chem. page 21 — aiid further on he says] 
"Chalk and marl or- carbonate of lime only improve the 
f" texture of a soil, or its relation to absorption; it acts 
[*' merely as one of its earthy ingredients.'" 

*See the plate and description in Lecture IV of 
Agi-icultural Chemistry. 



smallest portion of carbonate of lime — nor of the 
only other substance which might be mistaken for 
it, the carbonate of magnesia. 

The examinations of all the soils that will be 
here mentioned, were made in the pneumatic ap- 
paratus, except some of those which evidently 
evolv^ed no gas, and when no other result was re- 
quired. As calcareous earth is plainly visible to 
the eye in all shelly soils, they only need examina- 
tion to ascertain its proportion. A ihw examples 
will show what proportions we may find, and how 
greatly they vary, even in soils apparently of equal 
value. 

1. Soil, a black clayey loam, from the top of 
the high knoll at the end of Coggin's Point, on 
James River, containing fragments of muscle 
shells throughout. Never manured and supposed to 
have been under scourging cultivation and close 
grazing from the first settlement of the country: then 
(1818) capable of producing twenty-five or thirty 
bushels of corn — and the soil well suited to wheat. 
One thousand grains, cleared by a fine sieve of all 
coarse shelly matter, (as none can act on the soil 
until nunutely divided.) yielded sixteen ounce 
measures of carbonic acid gas, which showed the 
finely diA-ided calcareous earth to be thirty-two 
grains. 

2. One thousand grains of similar soil from an- 
other part of the sanTe field, treated in the same 
manner, gave ttventy-four grains of finely divided 
calcareous earth. 

3. From the east end of a small island, at the 
end of Coggin's Point, surrounded by the river, and 
tide marsh. Soil, dark brown loam, much lighter 
than the preceding specimens, though not sandy 
— under hke exhausting cultivation — then capable 
of bringing thirty to thirty-five bushels of corn — 
not a good wheat soil, ten or twelve bushels being 
probably a full crop. One thousand grains yield" 
ed eight grains of coarse shelly matter, and 
eighty-two of finely divided calcareous earth. 

4. From a small spot of sandy sod, almost 
bare of vegetation, and incapable of producing 
any grain, though in the midst of very rich land, 
and cleared but a few j'ears. Some small frag- 
ments of fossd s^a shells being visible, |)rovcd this 
barren spot to be calcareous, which induced its ex- 
amination. Four hundred grains jielded eighty- 
seven of calcareous earth — nearly twenty-two per 
cent. This soil was afterwards dug and carried 
out as manure. 

5. Black friable loam, from Indian Fields, on 
York River. The soil was a specimen of afield of 
considerable extent, mixed throughout with oyster 
shells. Though fight and mellow, the sod did not 
appear to be sandy. Rich, durable, and long un- 
der exhausting cultivation. 

1260 grains of soil yielded 
168 — of coarse shelly matter, separated me- 
chanically, 
8 — finely divided calcareous earth*. 
The remaining solid matter, carefully separated, 
(by agitation and settling in water,) consisted of 
130 grains of fine clay, black with putrescent 
matter, and which lost more than 
one-fourth of its weight by-being ex- 
posed to a red heat, 
875 — white sand, moderately fine, 
20 — very fine sand, 
36 — lost in the process. 

1061 



20 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



6. Oyster shell soil of the best quality from tlie 
farm of Wills Cowper, Esq. on Nansemond River 
• — never manured, and supposed to have been cul- 
tivated in corn as often as three years in four, since 
the first settlement of the countrj' — now yields (by 
actual measurement) thirty bushels of corn to the 
acre — but is very unproductive in wheat. A spe- 
cimen taken from the surface to the depth of six 
inches, weighed altogether 
242 dwt., which consisted of 

126 — of shells and their fragments, separa- 
ted by the sieve, 
116 — remaining finely divided soil. 

Of the finely divided part, 500 grains consisted of 

18 grains of carbonate of lime. 
330 
94 



35 



23 



silicious sand — none very coarse, 
impalpable aluminous and silicious 
earth, 

putrescent vegetable matter — none 
coarse or unrotted, 



600 



It is unnecessary to cite any particular trials of 
our poor soils, as it has been stated in the pre- 
ceding chapter that all are entirely destitute of cal- 
careous earth — excluding the rare, but well marked 
exceptions of its great excess, of which an exam- 
ple has been given in the soil marked 4, in the fore- 
going examinations. 

Unless then I am mistaken in supposing that 
these facts are universally true, the certain results 
of chemical analysis completely establish these 
general rules — viz: 

Thai all calcareous soils are naturally fertile and 
durable in a very high degree — and 

That all soils naturally poor are entirely destitute 
of calcareous earth. 

It then can scarcely be denied that calcareous 
earth must be the cause of the lertility of the one 
class of soils, and that the want of it produces the 
poverty of the other. Qualities that always thus 
accompany each other, cannot be, otherwise than 
cause and effect. If further proof is wanting, it 
can be safely promised to be furnished Avhen the 
practical application of calcareous manures to poor 
soils wOl be treated of, and their effects slated. 

These deductions are then established as to all 
calcareous soils, and all poor soils — which de- 
scriptions comprise nine-tenths of all. This alone 
would open a wide field for the practical exercise 
of the truths we have reached. But still there re- 
main strong objections and stubborn facts opposed 
to the complete proof of the proposition now under 
consideration, and consequently to the theory which 
that proposition is intended to support. The 
whole difficulty will be apparent at once when I 
now proceed to state that nearly all of our best 
soils, such as are very little if at all inferior in value 
to the small portion of shelly lands, are as destitute 
of calcareous earth as the poorest. So far as I 
have examined, this deficiency is no less general in 
the richest alluvial lands of the upper country — and, 
what will be deemed by some as incredible, by tar 
the greater part of the rich limestone soils between 
the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains are 
equally de.stitute of calcareo\is earth. These facts 
vvere not named before; to avoid embarrassing the 



discussion of other points — nor can they now be 
exijlained, and reconciled with my proposition, ex- 
cept through a circuitous and apparently digressive 
course of reasoning. They have not been kept 
out of view, nor slurred over, to weaken their 
force, and are now presented in all their strength. 
These difficulties will be considered, and removed, 
in the following chapters. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CHEMICAL, EXAMINATION OF RICH SOILS CON- 
TAINING NO CALCAREOUS EARTH. 

Proposition 2. Continued. 

Under common circumstances, Avhen any dis- 
putant admits facts that seem to contradict his own 
reasoning, such admission is deemed abundant 
evidence of their existence, l^ni though now 
placed exactly in this situation, the facts admitted 
by me are so opposed to all that scientific agricul-l 
tunsts have taught us to expect, that it is necessa-( 
ry for me to show the grounds on which my ad-l 
mission rests. Few would have believed in thei 
absence of calcareous earth in all our poor soils — 
and far more strange is it that the same deficiency 
should extend to such rich soils as some that wiljl 
be cited. 

The following specimens, taken from well! 
known and very fertile soils, were found to contaim 
no calcareous earth. Many trials of other richi 
soils have yielded like results — and indeed, I have 
never found calcareous earth in any soil below the 
falls of the rivers, in which, or near which, some 
particles of shells were not a isible. 

1. Soil tl-om Eppes' Island, which lies in James 
River, near City Point; light and friable (but not 
silicious) brown loam, rich and durable. The sur- 
face is not many feet above the highest tides, and 
like most of the best river lands, this tract seems 
to have been formed by alluvion many ages ago, 
but which may be termed recent, when compared 
to the general formation of the tide-water district, 

2. Black sihcious loam from the celebrated lands 
on Back River, near Hampton. 

3. Soil from rich land on Pocoson River, Yorli 
County. 

4. Black clay vegetable soil, from a fresh-watei 
tide marsh on James River — formed by the most 
recent alluvion. 

5. Alluvial soil of first rate fertility above the 
falls of James River — dark brown clay loam, iron 
the valuable and extensive body of bottom lane 
belonging to General J. H. Cocke, of Fluvanna, 

The most remarkable facts of the absence o 
calcareous earth, are to be found in the liinestomi 
soils, between the Blue Ridge and Alleghanj 
Mountains. Of these, I will report all that f have 
examined, and none contained any calcareoui 
earth, unless when the contrary will be .stated.* 



* Before the first of these trials was made, I supi 
posed (as probably most other persons do,) that lime 
stone soil was necessarily calcareous, and in a high de 
gree. It is difficult to get rid of this impression en 
tirely — and it may seem a contradiction in terms t 
say that a limesione soil is not calcareous. This I can 
not avoid: J must take the term limesione soij as cus 



PART I— THEORY. 



21 



1 to 6. Limestone soils selected in the neighbor- 
hood of Lexington, Virginia, by Prolessor Gra- 
ham, with the view of enabling me to investigate 
this subject. All the sjiecimens were Irom first 
rate soils, except one, which was from land of in- 
ferior value. One of the specimens, Mr. Gra- 
ham's description stated to be "taken irom a piece 
of land so rocky [with limestone] as to be unfit for 
" cultivation — at least with the plough. I could 
" scarcely select a specimen which I would expect 
" to be more strongly impregnated with calcareous 
" earth." This specimen, by two separate trials, 
yielded only one grain ol' calcareous earth, from 
one thousand of soil. The other six soils contain- 
ed none. The same result was obtained fi-om 

7. A specimen of alluvial land on North River, 
near Lexington. 

8. Brown loam from the Sweet Spring Valley, 
remarkable for its extraordinary productiveness 
and durability. It is of alluvial formation, and 
before it was drained, must have been often co- 
vered and saturated by the Sweet Spring and 
other mineral waters, which hold lime in solution. 
The surrounding highland is of limestone soil. Of 
this specimen, taken from about two hundred 
yards below the Sweet Spring, from land long cul- 
tivated every year, three hundred and sixty grains 
yielded not a particle of calcareous earth. It con- 
tained an unusually large proportion of oxide of 
iron, though my imperfect means enabled me to 
separate and collect only eight grains, the process 
evidently wasting several more. 

About a mile lower down, drains were then 
making (in 1826) to reclaim more of this rich 
valley from the overflowing waters. Another spe- 
cimen was taken from the bottom of a ditch just 
opened, eighteen inches below the surface. It 
was a black loam, and exhibited to the eye some 
very diminutive fresh-water shells, (perriwinkles, 
about one-tenth of an inch in length,) and many 
of their broken fragments. This gave, from two 
hundred grains, seventy-four of calcareous earth. 
But this cannot fairly be placed on the same 
footing with the other soils, as it had obviously 
been once the bottom of a stream, or lake, and the 
collection and deposite of so large and unusual a 
proportion of calcareous matter, seemed to be of 
xnimal formation. Both these specimens were 
selected at my request by one of our best farmers, 
md who also furnished a written description of 
•he soils, and their situation. 

9. Woodland, west of Union, Monroe County. 
5oil, a black clay loam, lying on, but not inter- 
iBixed at the surface with limestone rock. Sub- 
|ioil, yellowish clay. The rock at this place, a 
bot below the surface. Principal growth, sugar 
naple, white v/alnut, and oak. This and the 
lext specimen are from one of the richest tracts of 
lighland that I have seen. 

10. Soil similar to the last and about two hun- 
Ired yards distant. Here the hmestone showed 
ibove the surface, and the specimen was taken 
i-om between two large masses of fixed rock, and 
ibout a foot distant from each. 

11. Black rich soil, from woodland between the 
lot and Warm Springs, in Bath County. The 



?m has already fixed it. But it should not be extended 
any soils except those which are so near to lime- 
itone rock, as in some measure to be thereby afTected 
i„i their qualities and value. 



specimen was part of what was in contact with a 
mass of limestone. 

12. Soil fi-om the western foot of the Warm 
Spring Mountain, on a gentle slope between the 
court house and the road', and about one hundred 
and fifty yards from the Warm Bath. Rich brown 
loam, contaming many small pieces of limestone, 
but no finely divided calcareous earth. 

13. A specimen taken two or three hundred 
yards from the last, and also at the foot of the 
mountain. Sod, a rich black loam, full of small 
fragments of limestone of different sizes, between 
that of a nutmeg and small shot. The land had 
never been broken up for cultivation. One thou- 
sand grains contained two hundred and forty 
grains of small stone or gravel, mostly limestone, 
separated mechanically, and sixty-nine grains of 
finely divided calcareous earth. 

14. Black loamy clay, from the excellent wheat 
soil adjoining the town of Bedford in Pennsylva- 
nia: the specimen taken from beneath and in con- 
tact with limestone. One thousand grains yielded 
less than one grain of calcareous earth. 

15. A specimen from within a few yards of the 
last, but not in contact with limestone, contained 
no calcareous earth: neither did the red clay sub- 
soil, six inches below the surface. 

16. Very similar soil, but much deeper, adjoin- 
ing the principal street of Bedford — the specimen 
taken from eighteen inches below the surface, and 
adjoining a mass of limestone. A very small dis- 
engagement of gas indicated the presence of cal- 
careous earth — but certainly less than one grain 
in one thousand, and perhaps not half that quan- 
tity. 

17. Alluvial soil on the Juniata, adjoining Bed- 
ford. 

18. Alluvial vegetable soil near the stream flow- 
ing from all the Saratoga Mineral Springs, and 
necessarily often covered and soaked by those 
waters, and 

19. Soil taken from the bed of the same stream 
— neither contained any portion of carbonate of 
lime. 

Thus it appears, that of nineteen specimens of 
soils, only four contained calcareous earth, and 
three of these four, in exceedingly small propor- 
tions. It should be remarked that all these were 
selected from situations, which from their proximi- 
ty to calcareous rock, or exposure to calcareous 
waters, Avere supposed most likely to present high- 
ly calcareous soils. If five hundred specimens 
had been taken without choice, from what are 
commonly limestone soils, (merely because they 
are not very distant from limestone rock, or springs 
of limestone water,) the analysis of that whole 
number would be less likely to show calcareous 
earth, than the foregoing short list. I therefore 
feel justified^ from my own few examinations, and 
unsupported by any other authority, to pronounce 
that calcareous earth will very rarely be found in 
any soils between the falls of our rivers, and the 
navigable western waters. In a few specimens 
of some of the best soils from the borders of the 
Mississippi and its tributary rivers, I found calca- 
reous earth present in all — but in small propor- 
tions, and in no case exceeding two per cent. 

The only soils of considerable extent of surface 
which, from the specimens that I have examined, 
appear to be highly calcareous, and to agree in 
that respect, with many European soils, are from 



22 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



the prairies, those lands of the west which, 
whether ricli or poor, are remarkable for being 
destitute of trees, and covered vvitii grass, so as to 
Ibrni natural meadows. The examinations were 
made but recently, (in 1834) and are reported be- 
cause presenting striking exceptions to the general 
constitution of soils in this country. 

20. Prairie soil of the most productive kind, in 
Alabama, is a black clay, witli very little sand, 
yet so liir li'om being stiff, that it becomes too light 
by cultivation. This kind of land is stated by the 
friend to whom I am indebted lor the specimens, 
to "produce corn and oats most luxuriantly — and 
also cotton tor two or three years; but alter that 
time cotton is subject to the rust, probably from the 
then open state of the soil, which by cultivation 
has by that time become as light and as soft as a 
bank of ashes." One hundred grains of the s])e- 
cimen contained eight of carbonate of lime. All 
this prairie land in Alabama lies on a substratum 
of what is there called "rotten limestone," (speci- 
mens of which contained seventy-two to eighty- 
two per cent, of hme,) and which rises to the sur- 
face sometimes, forming the "bald prairies," a 
sample of the soil of which (21) contained fifty-nine 
per cent, of carbonate of lime. This was de- 
scribed as "comparatively poor — neither trees nor 
bushes grow there, and only grass and weeds be- 
fore cultivation — corn does not grow well — small 
grain better — and cotton soon becomes subject to 
tiie rust." The excessive proportion of calcareous 
earth is evidently the cause of its barrenness. 

The substratum called limestone is sofl enough 
to be cut easily and smoothly with a knife, and 
some of it is in appearance and texture more like 
the chalk of Europe, than any other earth that I 
have seen in this country. 

22. A specimen of the very rich "cane brake" 
lands in Marengo County, Alabama, contained six- 
teen per cent, of carbonate of hme. This is a 
kind of prairie, of a wetter nature, from the winter 
rains not being able to run oti' trom the level sur- 
face, nor to sink through the tenacious clay soil, 
and the solid stratum ol' limestone below. 

23. A specimen from the very extensive "Choc- 
taw Prairie" in Mississippi, of celebrated fertility, 
yielded thirteen per cent, of carbonate of lime. 

Several other specimens of ditl'erent, but all of 
very fertile soils from Southern Alabama, and all 
lying over the substratum of salt limestone, were 
found to l^e neutral, containing not a particle oi 
lime in the Ibrm of carbonate. These specimens 
were as Ibllows: — 

24. One from the valley cane land — "very wet 
through the winter, but always dry in surr.mer — 
and alter being ditched, is dry enough to be culti- 
vated in cotton, which Avill grow li:om eight to 
twelve feet high." 

25. Another trom what is called the best "post-oak 
land," on which trees of that kind grow to the 
size of from two to four feet in diameter — having 
but little underwood, and no cane growth — 
"thought to be nearly as rich as the best cane 
land, and will produce 1500 lbs. or more, of seed 
cotton, or fifty bushels of corn to the acre." 

26. Another from what is termed "palmetto land, 
having on it that plant as well as a heavy cover 
of large trees growing luxuriantly. It is a cold 
and wet soil before being brought into good tilth; 
but afterwards is soft and easy to till, and pro- 
duces corn and cotton finely. The cane on it is 



generally small: the soil from four to tell fefet 
deep."* 

The foregoing details, respecting limestone 
lands, may perhaps be considered an unnecessary 
digression, in a treatise on the soils of the tide- 
water district. But the analysis of limestone soils 
furnishes the strongest evidence of the remarka- 
ble and novel fact of the general absence of calca- 
reous earth — and the information tiience derived, 
will be used to sustain the Ibllowing steps of my 
argument. 

All the examinations of soils in this chapter 
concur in ojiposing the genei-al application of the 
proposition that the deficiency of calcareous earth 
is the cause of the sterility of our soils: and hav- 
ing stated the objection in all its force, I shall now 
proceed to inquire into its causes, and endeavor to > 
dispel its apparent opposition to my doctrine. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PROOFS OF THE EXISTENCE OF ACID AND) 
KEUTRAL SOILS. 

Proposition 2. Continued. 

Sufficient evidence has been adduced to provea 
that many of our most fertile and valuable soils are» 
destitute of calcareous earth: but it does not neces- 
sarily follow that such has always been their com-, 
position — or that they may not now contain limcc 
combined with some other acid than the carbonic. 
That this is really the case, I shall now offer proofs^ 
to establish — and not only maintain this positioni 
with regard to those valuable soils, but shall con-i 
t«'nd that lime in some proportion, combined witW 
vegetable acid, is present in every soil capable ot( 
supporting vegetation. 

Bat while I shall endeavor to maintain these; 
positions, without asking or admitting any excep-i' 
tion, let me not be understood as asserting tha^i' 
the original ingredient of calcareous earth waii| 
always th^"" sole cause of the fertility of any pan' 
ticular soil, or that a knowledge of the proportioi 
contained, would serve to measure the capacity o ' 
the soil fbr improvement. Calcareous soils no' 
diflfering materially in qualities or value, often ex ' 
hibit a remarkable difi'erence in their respectivt 
proportions of calcareous earth: so that it w"Oul(' 
seem, that a small quantity, aided by some otlie' 
unknown agent, may give as much capacity fo. 
improvement, and uhimately produce as much fer' 



* It is proper to mention a circumstance which ma 
have liad some ctFect in removing the carbonate c 
lime from these Alabama soils, besides the more gene 
ral causes which will be traced in the next chaptei 
With these specimens of soil, was sent a collection c 
the small stones and gravel which were stated to b; 
found generally through these soils, and particularly i 
the clay subsoil beneath. Among these there wei 
several fragments of siilphurct of iron. This miner; 
when decomposing in the earth in contact with carbc 
nate of lime, also decomposes the latter substance, ar 
forms sulphate of lime, [g3qDsum,] instead. It is we 
worth inquiry whether sulphuret of iron is generally 
found in these soils. It may be known by its gre; 
weight, and metallic lustre when broken, (which hi 
caused it often to be mistaken for silver ore,) and I 
giving out fumes of burning sulphur when subjects 
to strong heat under a blow pipe. 



PART I— THEORY. 



23 



tility, as ten limes that proportion, under other 
circumstances. 

In all naturally poor soils, producing freely, in 
their virgin state, pine and whortleberry, and sor- 
rel after cuUi^^ation, I suppose to have been formed 
some vegetable acid, which, after taking up what- 
ever small quantity of lime might have been ])re- 
sent, still remains in excess in the soil, and nour- 
ishes in the highest degree (he plants named above, 
but is a poison to all useful crops; and effectually 
prevents such soils becoming I'ich, from either na- 
tural or artificial applications of putrescent ma- 
nures. 

In a neutral soil, I suppose calcareous earth to 
have been sutftciently abvmdant to produce a high 
degree of fertility — But that it has been decom- 
posed, and the lime taken up, by the gradual for- 
mation of vegetable acid, until the lime and the 
icid neutralize and balance each o<her, leaving no 
considerable excess of either. Such are all our 
^rtile soils that are not calcareous. 

These suppositions remain to be proved, in all 
;hcir parts. 

No opinion has been yet advanced that is less 
supported by good authority, or to which more ge- 
leral opposition may be expected, than that which 
supposes the existence of acid soils. The term 
iour soil is frequently used by liwmers, but in so 
oose a manner as to deserve no consideration: it 
las been thus applied to any cold and ungrateful 
and, without intending that the term should be 
iterally understood, and perhaps without attach- 
ng to its use any precise meaning whatever. 
Dundonald onl)^, of all those wdio have applied 
;hemistry to agriculture, has asserted the exist- 
mce of vegetable acid in soils:* but he has offer- 
id no analysis, nor any other evidence to establish 
;he fact — and his opinion has received no confirm- 
lition, nor even the slightest notice, from later and 
|nore able investigators of the chemical characters 
f soils. Kirwan and Davy profess to enumerate 
dl the common ingredients of soils, and it is not 
timated by either, that vegetable acid is one of 
hem. Even this tacit denial by Davy, more 
trongly opposes the existence of vegetable acid, 
' an it is supported by the opinion of Dundonald, 
r any of those writers on agriculture who have 
.dmitted its existence. Grisenthwaite, a latewri- 
r on agricultural chemistry, and who has the ad- 
antage of knowing the discoveries, and compar- 
Iig thie opinions of all his predecessors, expressly 
i,enies the possibility of any acid existing in soils. 
lis N'ew Theory of jlgriculture contains the fol- 
)wing passage: " Chalk has been recommended 
as a substance calculated to correct the sourness 
of land. It would surely have been a wise 
practice to have previously ascertained this ex- 
istence of acid, and to have determined its nature, 
in order that it might be effectually removed. 
The fact really is, that no soil was ever yet found 
to contain any notable quantity of acid. The 
acetic and the carbonic are the only two that are 
likely to be generated by any spontaneous de- 
ko composition of animal or vegetable bodies, and 
neither of them have any fixity when exposed 
« to the air." Thus, then, my doctrine is de- 
»"! rived of even the feeble suj^port it might have 
d from Dundonald's mere opinion, it that opin- 



"Dundonald's Connexion of Chemistry andAgricul- 



ion had not been contradicted by later and better 
aiithority: and the only support that I can look for, 
will be in the facts and arguments that I shall be 
able to adduce. 

I am not prepared to question what Grisenth- 
waite states as a chemical fact, " that no soil was 
ever yet found to contain any notable quantity of 
acid." No soil examined by me for this purpose, 
gave any evidence ot the presence of uncombined 
acid. Still, however, the term acid may be appli- 
ed with propriety to soils, in which growinji vege- 
tables continually receive acid from the decompo- 
sition of others, (for which no "fixity" is requi- 
site,) or in Vv'hich acid is present, not free, but 
combined with some base, by Avhich it is readily 
yielded to promote, or retardj the growth of plants 
in contact with it. It will be sufficient for my pur- 
pose to show that certain soils contain some sub- 
stance, or possess some quality, which promotes 
almost exclusively the growth of acid plants — that 
this power is strengthened by adding known vege- 
table' acids to the soil — and is totally removedljy 
the application of calcareous manures, which 
would necessarily destroy any acid, if it were pre- 
sent. Leaving it to chemists to determine the na- 
ture and properties of this substance, I merely 
contend for its existence and eflects: and the cause 
of these effects, whatever it may be, for the want 
of a better name, I shall call acidily. 

The proofs now to be offered in support of the 
existence of acid and neutral soils, however weak 
each may be Avhen considered alone, yet when 
taken in connexion, will together form a body of 
evidence not easily to be resisted. 

1st Proof Pine and comnr.on sorrel have leaves 
well known to be acid to the taste; and their 
growth is favored by the soils which I suppose to 
be acid, to an extent which would be thought re- 
markable in other plants on the richest soils. Ex- 
cept wild locust on the best river land, no growth 
can compare in rapidity with pines on soils natu- 
rally poor, and even greatly reduced by long culti- 
vation. Pines usually stand so thick on old ex- 
hausted fields, that the increase of size in each 
plant is greatly retarded — but if the whole growth 
of an acre is estimated, it would probably exceed 
in quantity the different growth of the richest 
soils, of the same age and on an equal space. 
Every cultivator of corn on poor light soil knows 
how rapidly sorrel* will cover his otherwise naked 
field, unless kept in check by continual tillage — 
and that to root it out, so as to prevent the like fu- 
ture labor, cannot be effected by any mode of cul- 
tivation whatever. This weed too is considered 
far more hurtful to growing crops, than any other 
of equal size. Yet neither of these acid plants 
can thrive on the best lands. Sorrel cannot even 
live on a calcareous soil — and if a pine is some- 
times found there, it has nothing of its usual ele- 
cant form, but seems as stunted and ill shaped as 
if it had always suffered for want of nourishment. 
Innumerable facts, of which these are examples, 
prove that these acid plants must derive from their 



* Sheep sorrel, or Rumex acefosa. The wood sorrel 
(oxalis acetocella) is of a very different character. 
This prefers rich and calcareous soils, and I have seen 
it growing on places calcareous to excess. It would 
seem, therefore, that wood sorrel forms its acid from 
the atmosphere, and does not draw it from the soil, as 
is evidently the case with common soixel. 



24 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



favorite soil some kind of food peculiarly suited to 
their growth, and quite useless, if not hurtful, to 
cultivated crops. 

2. Dead acid plants are the most effectual in 
promoting the growth of living ones. When 
pine leaves are applied to a soil, whatever acid 
they contain is of course given to that soil, for 
such time as circumstances permit it to retain its 
form, or peculiar properties, Such an application 
is often made on a larg-e scale^ by cutting down the 
second OTowth of pines, on land once under tillage, 
and suffering them to lie a year before clearing and 
cultivating the land. The invariable consequence 
of this course, is a growth of sorrel for one or two 
crops, so abundant and so injurious to the crops, 
as to niore than balance any benefit derived by the 
soil; from the vegetable matter having been allow- 
ed to rot. From the general experience of this 
eflfectj most persons put pine land under tillage as 
soon as cut down, after carefully burning the whole 
of the heavy cover of leaves, both green and dry. 
Until within a few years, it was generally sup- 
posed that the leaves of pine were worthless, if 
not hurtful, in all applications to cultivated land — 
which opinion doubtless was founded on such facts 
as have been just stated.- But if they are used as 
litter for cattle, and heaped to ferment, the injurious 
quality of pine leaves is destroyed, and they be- 
come a valuable manure. This practice is but of 
recent origin — but is highly approved, and rapidly 
extending. 

On one of the washed and barren declivities (or 
galls) which are so numerous on all our farms, I 
had the small gullies packed full of green pine 
bushes, and then covered with the earth drawn 
from the equally barren intervening ridges, so as 
nearly to smooth the whole suffice. The whole 
piece had borne nothing previously except a few 
scattered tufts of poverty grass, and dwarfish sor- 
rel, all of which did not prevent the spot seeming 
quite bare at midsummer, if viewed at the distance 
of one hundred yards. This operation was per- 
formed in February or March. The land was not 
cultivated, nor again observed until the second 
summer afterwards. At that time, the piece re- 
mained as bare as formerly, except along the filled 
gullies, which throughout the whole of their crook- 
ed courses, were covered by a thick and tall growth 
of sorrel, remarkably luxuriant for any situation, 
and which being bounded exactly by the width of 
the narrow gullies, had the appearance of some 
vegetable sown thickly in drills, and kept clean by 
tillage. So great an effect of this kind has not 
been produced within my knowledge — though 
facts of like nature and leading to the same con- 
clusion, are of frequent occurrence. If small pines 
standing thinly over a broom-grass old field, are 
cut down and left to lie, under every top will be 
found a patch of sorrel, before the leaves have all 
rotted. 

3. The groAvth of sorrel is not only peculiarly 
favored by the application of vegetables contain- 
ing acids already formed, but also by such matters 
as will form acid in the course of their decomposi- 
tion. Farm-yard manure, and all other putres- 
cent animal and vegetable substances, form acetic 
acid as their decomposition proceeds.* If heaps 
of rotting manure are left without being spread, in 
a field the least subject to produce sorrel, a few 



* Agr. Chem. p. 187. 



weeks of growing weather will bring out that 
plant close around every heap — and for some time, 
it will continue to show more benefit from that rank 
manuring than any other grass. For feveral yeara 
my winter-made manure was spread and ploughed 
in on land not cultivated until the next autumn, or 
the spring after. This practice was founded on 
the mistaken opinion, that it would prevent much 
of the usual exposure to evaporation and waste of 
the manure. One of the reasons which alone 
would have compelled me to abandon this absurd 
practice, was, that a crop of sorrel always followed, 
(even on good soils that before barely permitted a 
scanty growth to live,) which so injured the next 
grain crop as greatly to lessen the benefit from the 
manure. Sorrel unnaturally produced by such 
applications, does not infest the land longer than 
until we may suppose the acid to have l^een re- 
moved by cultivation, and other causes. 

It may be objected that my authorities prove 
only the formation of a single vegetable acid in 
soil, the acetic — that my facts show only the pro- 
duction of a single acid plant, sorrel — and that the 
acid wliich sorrel contains is not the acetic, but tho 
oxalic* From the application of acids to recent- 
ly ploughed land, no acid plant except sorrel is 
made to grow, because that only can spring upj 
speedily enough to arrest the fleeting nutrimentJ 
Poverty grass grows only on the same kinds o-l, 
soil, and generally covers them after tliey havei 
been a year free from a crop, but does not show 
sooncr-^-and pines require two years before theiii 
seeds will produce plants. But when pines begir 
to spread over the land, they soon put an end to^ 
the growth of all other plants, and are abundantlj 
supplied with their acid food, from the dropping o; 
their own leaves. Thus they may be first suppii-i 
ed with the vegetable acid ready formed in tht 
leaves, and aftervvards with the acetic acid, formec 
by their subsequent slow decomposition. It doer 
not weaken my argument, that the product of i 
plant is a vegetable acid different from the one sup: 
posed to have nourished its growth. All vegefa 
ble acids (except the prussic) however different in 
their properties, are conposed of the same threi 
elementary bodies, ditfeiing only in their propor 
tionst — and consequently are all convertible int( 
each other. A little more, or a little less of one o 
the other of these ingredients, may change th 
acetic to the oxalic acid, and that to any othei 
We cannot doubt but that such simple change^ 
may be produced by the chemical powers of vegeE 
tation, when others are effected, far more difficu' „, 
for us to comprehend. The most tender and fee 
ble oro^ans, and the mildest juices, aided by th 
power^of animal or vegetable life, are able to pre ,J|| 
duce decompositions and combinations, whicli th 
chemist cannot explain, and which he would i 
vain attempt to imitate. 

4. This ingredient of soils which nourishes aci 
plants, also poisons cultivated crops. Plants hav 
not the power of rejecting noxious fluids, but tak 
up by their roots every thing presented in a solub) 
form.J Thus the acid alsoenters the sap-vesse 
of cultivated plants, stunts their growth, and mak( 



* Agr. Chem. Lecture 3. 

t Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen. Agr. Cher 

Lecture 3, p. 78. ^ 

t Agr. Chem. Lecture 6, page 186. . 



PART I— THEUKY. 



25 



: impossible lor ihein to attain that size and pcr- 
jction, wliieh their proper food would ensure, it" it 
/as presented to them without its poisonous ac- 
ompanimenti When the poorest virgin wood- 
ifid is cut dowu) it is covered and fiUed to excess 
dtli leaves and other rotted and rottin^j; vegetable 
natters. Can a heavier vegetable manuring be 
esired I And as it completely rots during cultiva- 
ion, must not it otler to the growing plants as 
.bundant a supply of food as they can' require? — 
i^et the best product obtained may be from ten to 
if>een buohels of com, or five or six of wheat, 
oon to come dov.'n to half those quantities. If the 
loxious quality which causes such injury is an 
,cid, it is as certain as any chemical truth what- 
ver, that it will be neutralized, and its powers de- 
troyed, by applying enough of calcareous earth 
3 the soil: and precisely such effects are found 
whenever that remedy is tried. On land thus re- 
eved of this unceasing annoyance, the young 
orn no longer appears of' a pale and sickly green, 
pproaching to yellow, but takes immediately a 
eep healthy color, by which it may readily be 
istinguished from any on soil left in its former 
tate, before there is any perceptible difference in 
lie size of the plants. The crop Avill produce fifty 
one hundred per cent, more, the first year, be- 
Dre its supply of tbod can possibly have been in- 
reased — and the soil is soon found not only cleared 
f sorrel, but incapable of producing it. I have 
.nticipated these elfects of calcareous manures, 
lefbre t'urnishing the proof — but they will hereaf- 
2r be established beyond contradiction. 

The truth of the existence of either acid, or 
leutral soils, depends on the existence of the other 
-and to prove either, will necessarily establish 
loth. If acid exists in soils, then wherever it 
fleets with calcareous earth, the two substances 
nust combine and neutralize eacli other, so for 
IS their proportions are properly adjusted. On 
he other hand, if I can show that compounds ot 
ime and vegetable acid are present in most soils, 
t Ibllows inevitably that nature has provided 
aeans by which soils can generally obtain this 
icid: and if the amount formed can balance the 
ime, the operation of the same causes can exceed 
hat quantity, and leave an excess of free acid. 
?^rom these premises will be deduced the following 
»rools. 

5. It has been stated (page 18) that the process 
ecomniended by chemists ibr finding the calca- 
eous earth in soils was unfit for that purpose, be- 
ause a precipitate was always obtained even 
vhen no calcareous earth, or carbonate of lime 
vas present. Frequent trials have shown me that 
his precipitate is considerably more abundant from 
rood soils than bad. The substance thus obtained 
i-om rich soils by solution and precipitation, in 
:very case that I have tried, contains some calca- 
eous earth, although the soil from which it was 
lerived had none. The alkaUne liquor from which 
he precipitate has been separated, we are told by 
[)avy will, afler boiling, let fall the carbonate of 
nagnesia, if any had been in the soil: but when 
iny notable deposite is thus obtained, it will nllen 
le found to consist more of carbonate of lime, 
han of magnesia. The Ibllowiag are examples 
►f such products: 

One thousand grains of tide marsh soil (de- 
cribed page 20) acted on by muriatic acid in the 
)neumatic apparatus, gave out no carbonic «cid 
4 



gas, and therefore could have contained no carbo- 
nate of lime. The precipitate obtained Iron) the 
same weighed sixteen grains— which being again 
acted on by sulpliuric acid, evolved as much gas 
as showed that three grains had become carbonate 
of lime, in the |)revious part of the process. 

Two hundred grains ot' alluvial soil fiom Sara- 
toga Spnngs (pa^e 21, No. 18,) containing no car- 
bonate of lime, yielded a precipitate of twelve 
grains, of which three was carbonate of lime — and 
a deposite from the alkaline solution weighing six 
grains, four of which was carbonate of lime. 

Seven hundred grams of limestone soil from 
Bedford (part of the specimen marked 14, page 
21,) contained about two-thirds of a grain of car- 
bonate of lime— and its precipitate of twenty-eight 
grains, only yielded two grains: but the alkaline 
solution deposited eleven grains of the carbonates 
of lime and magnesia, of which at least five was 
of the former, as there remained seven and a half 
of solid matter, afler the action of suli)huric acid.* 

From this process, there can be no doubt but 
that the soil contained a proportion of som.e salt of 
lime (or lime combined with some kind of acid) 
which being decomposed by and combined with 
the muriatic acid, was then ])recipitated, not in its 
first form, but in that of cnrbonate of lime—it be- 
ing supplied with carbonic acid from the carbonate 
of potash, used to produce the precipitation. The 
proportions obtained in these cases were small; but 
it does not ibllow that the whole quantity of lime 
contained in the soil was found. However, to the 
extent of this small proportion of lime is proved 
clearly the presence of enough of some acid (and 
that not the carbonic) to combine with it. Neither 
could it have been the sulphuric, or the phosphoric 
acid: for though both the sulphate and phosphate 
of lime are in'some soils, yet neither of these salta 
can be decomposed by muriatic acid. 

6. The strongest "objection to the doctrine of 
neutral soils is, that if true, the salt formed by the 
combination of the lime and acid must often be 
present in such large proportions, that it is scarcely 
credible that its presence and nature should not 
have been discovered bv any of the chemists v/ho 
have analyzed soils. This difficulty I cannot re- 
move: but it may he met (or neutralized— to bo.^- 
row a figure from my subject,) by showing that 
an equafdilBculty awaits those who may support 
the otlier side of the argument. 



* The measurement of the carbonic acid gas evolved, 
was relied on to show the whole amount oi" carbonates 
present — and sulphuric acid was used to distinguish 
between lima and magnesia, in the deposite from the 
alkaline solution. If any alumine or magnesia had 
made part of the solid matter exposed to diluted sul- 
phuric acid, the combinations formed would haVe beeri 
soluble salts, which would of course have remained 
dissolved and invisible in the fluid. Lime only of the 
four earths forms with sulphuric acid a substance but 
slightly soluble, and which therefore can be mostly 
separated in a solid form. The whole of this substance 
(sulphate of lime) cannot be obtained in this manner, 
as a part is always dissolved: but whatever is obtained, 
proves tliat at least two-thirds of that quantity of cai-- 
bonate of Irme had been present: as that quantity of 
lime which will combine with enough carbonic acid 
to make 100 parts (by weight) of carbonate of lime^ 
will combine with so much more of sulpliuric acid, a* 
to form about 159 parts of the sulphate of }i»e, orgyp- 



26 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



The theory of geologists of the formation of 
soils from the decomposition, or disintegration of 
rocks, is received as true by scientific agriculturists. 
The soils thus supposed to be formed, receive ad- 
mixtures from each other, by means of diflerent 
operations of nature, and after being more or less 
enriched by the decay of their own vegetable pro- 
ducts, make the endless variety of existing soils.* 
But where a soil lying on, and thus supjjosed to 
have been formed from any particular kind of rock, 
is so situated that it could not have been moved, 
or received considerable accessions from ton-ents, 
or other causes, then, according to this theory, 
the rock and the soil should be composed of the 
same materials — and such soils as the sjjecimens 
marked 11 and IG (page 21) would be, like the 
rock they touched, nearly pure calcareous earth, 
instead of being (as they were in truth) destitute, 
or nearly so, of that ingredient. Such are the 
doctrines received and taught by Davy, or the 
unavoidable deductions from them. But without 
contending for the full extent of this theory of the 
formation of soils, (because I consider it almost 
entirely false,) every one must admit that soils 
thus situated, must have received in the lapse of 
ages, some accessions to tlieir bulk, from the ef- 
fects of frost, ram, sun, and cur, on the limestone 
in contact with them. All limestone soils, pro- 
perly so called, exhibit certain marked and pecu- 
liar characters of color, texture, and products, 
which can only be derived fi-om receiving into 
their composition more or less of the rock which 
lies beneath, or rises above their surface. This 
mixtuce will not be denied by any one who has 
observed limestone soils, and reasons fairly, whe- 
ther his investigation begins with the causes, or 
their effiects. If then all this ijain of calcareous 
earth remains in the soil, why is none, or almost 
none, discovered by accurate chemical analysis ? 
Or, if it be supposed not present, nor yet changed 
in its chemical character, in what possible manner 
could a ])onderou< and insoluble earth have made 
its escape from the soiU To remove this obstacle 
without admitting the operation of acid in making 
Buch soils neutral, will be attended with at least as 
much difficulty, as any arising from that admission 
being made. 

7. But we are not lefl entirely to conjecture that 
soils were once more calcareous than they now 
are, if chemical tests can be relied on to furnish 
proof Acid soils that have received large quan- 
tities of calcareous earth as manure, after some 
time, will yield very little when analyzed. To a 
Goil of this kind, full of vegetable matter, I applied, 
in 1818 and 1831, fossil shells at such a known and 
heavy rate as would have given to the soil (by 
calculation) at least three per cent, of calcareous 
earth, for the depth of five inches. Only a small 
portion of the shelly matter was very finely di- 
vided when applied. Since the application of the 
greater part of this dressing, (only one-fourth 
Raving been laid on in 1818,) no more than six 
years had passed before the ibl lowing examina- 
tions were made — and the cultivation of five crops 
in that time, three of which were horse-hoed, must 
have well mixed the calcareous earth with the soil. 



Three careful examinations gave the following re-^ 

suits. 

No. 1. — 1000 grains yielded 7| of coarse calcare- 
ous earth, (frag-' 
ments of shells.] 
And less than ^ of finely divided, 



No. 2.- 



No. 3.- 



-1000 grains yielded 5 of coarse, 

2 finely divided. 



-1500 grains yielded 15 of coarse, 

2| finely divided. 



m 



The specimens No. 1 and No. 2 were obtainedj 
by taking handfiilsof soil trom several places, (fouiij 
in one case, and twelve in the other) mixing therr.i 
well together, and then taking the samples tor triaJ 
from the two parcels. On such land, when nol 
recently ploughed, there will always be an over 
proportion of Ihe pieces of shells on the surface, as 
the rains have settled the fine soil, and left exposeci 
the coarse matters. On this account, in makinci 
these Uvo selections, the upper half inch was firs^: 
thrown aside, and the handful dag from below,; 
No. 3 was taken from a spot showing a Hill aver-i 
age thickness of shells, and included the surface,; 
I considered the three trials made as fairly as po3-< 
sible, to give a general average. Small as is the 
proportion of finely divided calcareous earth ex-: 
hibited, it must have been increased by rubbinoi 
some particles from the coarse fragments, in the. 
operation of separating them by a fine sieve. In- 
deed it may be doubted vs^hether any proportior 
remaineil very finely divided — or in other words; 
whether it was not combined with acid, as fast asi 
it was so reduced. But without the benefit of thiii 
supposition, the finely divided calcareous earth ir 
the three specimens, averaged only one and one 
fourth (Trains to the thousand, which is one twen 
ty-fourth of the quantity laid on: and the tota 
quantity obtained, of coarse and fine, is eigh 
grains in one thousand, or about one-fourth of th< 
original proportion. All the balance had change( 
itslbrm, or otherwise disappeared, in the few yean 
that had passed since the application. 

The very small proportions of finely divided cal 
careous earth compared to the coarse, in som» 
shelly soils, furnish still stronger evidence of th 
kind. Of the York River soil, (described page 19 
No. 5,) 

1260 grains, yielded of coarse calca- 
reous parts, - - - 168 grains 
And of finely divided, - 8 



* Agr. Chem. p. 131. Also Treatise on Agriculture 
(by General Armstron£^) in vol. I. of American Far- 
mer, quoted in Appendix D. 



1044 



of the rich Nansemond soil, 
(No. 6,) 



544 coarse 
18 fine 



As many of the shells and their fragments ii 
these soils are in a mouldering state, it is incredi 
ble that the whole quantity of finely divided parij 
tides derived from them should have amounte* 
to no more than these small proportions. Inde ^ 
pendent of the action of natural causes, the plougL , 



PART I— THEORY. 



27 



ilone, in a few years, mast have pulverized at 
east as much of the shells, as was ibund. 

8. In other cases, where the oj)erations of nature 
lave been applying calcareous earth, for ages, 
lone now remains in the soil; and the proof" thence 
ierived is more striking, than any obtained from 
irtificial applications, ol"only a tew years standing, 
^''alieys subject to be frequently overflown and 
saturated by the water of limestone streams, must 
lecessaril}^ retain a new supply of calcareous earth 
roni every such soaking and drying. 

Limestone water contains the super-carbonate of 
ime, which is soluble: but this loses its excess of 
:arbonic acid when left drv^ by evaporation, and 
)ecomas the carbonate oT lime, which not being 
iokible, is in no danger of being removed by sub- 
lequent floods. Thus accessions are slowly hut 
iontinually made, through many centuries. Yet 
luch soils are found containino; no calcareous earth 



— of which a remarkable example is presented in 
the soil of the cultivated part of the Sweet Spring 
Valley, (No. 8, page 21.)* 

9. All Aoood ashes contain salts of lime, (and 
most kinds in large proportions,) which could 
have been derived from no other source than the 
soil on which the trees grew. The lime thus ob- 
tained is principally combined with carbonic acid, 
and partly with the phosphoric, forming phosphate 
of lime. The table of Saussure's analyses of the 
ashes of numerous plants,t is sufficient to show 
that these products are general, if not universal. 
The following examples of some of my own ex- 
aminations, prove that ashes yield calcareous earth 
in proportions suitable to their kind, although the 
wood grew on soils destitute of that ingredient — 
as was ascertained with regard to each of these 
soils. 



100 grains of ashes from. 


TVhat soil taken from. 


Carbonate of 
Lime. 


Phosphate of 
Lime. 


Whortleberry bushes, the entire ? 

plants, except the leaves, < 
Equal parts of the bark, heart, / 

and sapwood, of an old locust, 5 
ifoung locust bashes entire, 
S^oung pine bushes, 
Body of a young pine tree. 


Acid silicious loam, 

The same, 

Rich neutral clay loam, 
Acid silicious loam, 
Acid clay soil. 


4 grains. 

51 

40 
9 
14 


4 grains. 

18 

30 
6 

18 



The potash was first carefully taken out of all 
hese samples. The remaining solid matter was 
iilicious sand, and charcoal: the proportion of the 
atter varying according to the degree of heat used 
n burning the wood, which was not permitted to 
be very strong, for fear of converting the calca- 
•eous earth into quick-lime. 

' All the carbonate of lime yielded by ashes, was 
Necessarily famished in some form by the soil on 
'vhich the plants grew — and when the sod itself 
"contained no carbonate, some other compound of 
ime must have been present, to enable us to ac- 
^.ount for these certain and invariable results. The 
'jresence of a combination of lime with some ve- 
'-^etable acid, and none other, would serve to pro- 
luce such effects. According to established chem- 
fcal laws, if any such combination had been taken 
ip into the sap-vessels of the tree, it would be de- 
^omposed by the heat necessary to convert the 
Wood to ashes; the acid would be reduced to its 
filementary principles, and the lime would imme- 
diately vmite with the carbonic acid, (which is 
)roduced abundantly by the process of combus- 
ion,) and thus present a product of rar6()?m^e of 
ime newly formed from the materials of the other 
substances decomposed. J 

On the foregoing facts and deductions, I am 
lontent to rest the truth of the existence of acid 
md neutral soils. 



I The reasoning on the presence of the carbonate of 
ime found in ashes from acid soils, does not apply to 
he phosphate of lime which is always also present. The 
atter salt is not decornposed by any known de^^ree oi 
leat, [Art. Chcmistri/, in Edin. Ency.} and therefore 
ni.a;lit have remained unchanged, in passing from the 
ioil to the tree, and thence to the ashes. 



I have chosen to leave all the preceding part of 
this chapter (with the exception of a few merely 
verbal corrections and alterations) precisely as it 
appeared in the first edition of this essay, (January 
1832.) Eut since that time I have first heard of 
a discovery, and of consequent investigations by 
men of science, which seem to furnish direct 
proof of what I have been contending for, viz: 
the existence of a vegetable acid substance in soils 
and vianiires, generally diffused, and often in large 
proportions, and yet which had net been known or 
suspected by cheiuists previously. The first inti- 
mation of this discovery which reached me was 
in the jllphabet of Scientific Gardening, by Pro- 
fessor Rennie, published in London in 1833, from 
which the part relative to this subject will be 
quoted below. Since then I have been enabled to 
consult the late Frenidi work of Berzelius, in which 
his views of huniic acid are given more at length, 
and from which an extract will be translated and 
giv-en in the aj'ii)cnd!x. [See F.] The facts res- 
pecting hunfic acid, as concisely stated in the follovv- 



* The excess of carbonic acid which unites with lime 
and renders the compound soluble in water, is lost by 
exposure of the calcareous water to the air, as well as 
by evaporation to dryness. [Accum's Chemistry — 
Lime.] The masses" of soft calcareous rock which 
are deposited in the rapids of hmestone streams, are 
examples of the loss of carbonic acid from exposure 
to the air; and the stalactites in caves, the deposite of 
the slow-dropping water holding in solution tlie super 
carbonate of lime, are examples of the same eflect 
produced by evaporation. A sinular deposite of in- 
soluble carbonate of lime, from both these causes, is 
necessarily made on all land subject to be overflowed 
by limestone waters. 

] Quoted in Agr. Chem. Lfctiire .?. 



28 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



ing quotation from Professor Rennie, furnish strong 
conlirmation of some of tlie opinions which I have 
endeavored to maintain. It will hov^^ever be ielr, 
without further comment, for the reader to observe 
the accordance, and to make the application. 

"Huaiic Acid astj Humiiv, — In most chemi- 
cal books the tcniis Ulmic JJcid and Ulmia are 
used, from Uhuis, elm; but, as lis substance oc- 
curs in most, if not all plants, the name is bad, I 
preler Sprengel's terms, from Ilnvnis, soil. 

This important substance was first discovered 
by Klaproth, in a sort of gum from an elm; but it 
has since been Ibund by Berzelius in all barks; by 
M. Braconnot in saw-dust, starch, and sugar; and 
what is still more interesting for our present pur- 
pose, it has been tound by Sprengel and M. Poly 



is in general as entirely deficient in the soils of Vir- 
ginia, as that ingredient has heretotbre lieen sup- 
posed by agricultural writers, to be common in all 
soils: and 

2nd, That notwithstanding this total absence of 
the carbonate of lime, that lime in some other Ibrm 
of combination, in greater or less quantiiies, is an 
ingredient of every soil capable of producing ve- 
getation. 

Nor do these facts come in conflict with each 
other; nor either of them with the position which 
has been contended for, that calcareous matter in 
proper proportions is necessary to cause fertihty in 
soils. Should some other person, who may h& 
aided by sufficient scientific light, undertake thei 
investigation, he may supply all that is wanting^ 
for the lull proof of this tiieory of the cause ot 



dore'BoulIay, to constitute a leading principle in fej.tility,by .showing that the value of a soil (under 
soils and manures.^ IJumin appears to be lormed ^^^^^^^ circumstances) is in proportion to the quan- 

the veo-etable salt of lime present in thai 



of carbon and hydrogen, and the liumic acid of 
humin and oxygen. Pure hum in is of a deep 
blackish brown, without taste or sm.ell, and water 
dissolves it with great difficulty and in small quan- 
tities; consequently it cannot, when pure, be avail- 
able as food for plants. 

Humic acid however, which I may remark, is 
not sour to the taste, readily combines with many 
of the substances found in soils and manures, and 
not only renders them, but itself also, easy to be 
dissolved in water, which in their separate state 
could not take place. In this way humic acid will 
combine with lime, potass, and ammonia, in the form 
of humates, and the smallest portion of these will 
render it soluble in water and fit to be taken up by 
the spongelets of the root fibres. 

It appears to have been from ignorance of the 
important action of the humic acid in thus helping 
to dissolve earthy matters, that the older writers 
were so puzzled to discover how lime and potass 
got into plants; and it seems also to be this, chiefly, 
which is so vaguely treated of in the older books, 
under the names of extractive, vegetable extract, 
mucilaginous matter, and the like. Saussurc, for 
instance, filled a vessel with turf, and moistened it 
thoroughly with pure Avater, when by putting ten 
thousand parts of it by weight under a heavy 
press, and filtering and evaporating the fluid, he 
obtained twenty-six parts of \A^hat he termed ex- 
tract; from ten thousand parts of well dunged and 
rich kitchen garden mould, he obtained ten parts 
of extract; and from ten thousand parts of good 
corn field mould, he obtained tour parts of extract. 
M. Polydore Boullay Ibund that the liquid ma- 
nure, drained from dung hills, contains a large pro- 
portion of humic acid, which accounts for its fer- 
tilizing properties so well known in China and on 
the continent: and he found it also in peat earth, 
and in varying proportions in all sorts of turf It 
appears probable, from Gay-Lussac having found 
a sin^ilaracid, (technically u'^zumic acid,) on de- 
composing the prussic acid, (technically Hydro- 
cyanic acid,) tJKit the humic acid may be found in 
animal blood, and if so, it will account for its utility 
as a manure fur vines, &c. Dobereiner found the 
gallic acid convertible into the humic." 

But without the aid of this recent discovery of 
the humic acid, if the foregoing examinations of 
soils, and the arguments which follow remain un- 
questioned, these two remarkable and important 
lacts may he considered as established: 

Jst. That calcareous earth, or carbonate of lime, 



3cjual 
tity 



soil. The direct and positive proof of this doc- 
trine, I confidently anticipate will hereafter be ob- 
tained from more full examinations of the humici 
acid, and its compounds in various soils, and from 
correct and minute reports of the quantities and 
kinds of those ingredients, and of the rate oi 
natural ferfility of each soil. As yet, however in- 
teresting the recent discovery of humic acid may 
be to chemists, it does not seem that they havei 
suspected it to have any thing like the important 
bearing on the fertilization of soil, which I had 
attributed to the supposed acid principle or ingre-;' 
dient. 

Supposing the doctrine to be sufficiently proved 
it may be useful to trace the formation of acidity 
in dilferent soils, according to the views which 
have been presented, and to display the promise 
which that quality holds out for improving i\v 
soils, which it has hitherto rendered barren and 
worthless. 

Every neutral soil at some former time contained^ 
calcareous earth in sufficient quantity to produce 
the uniform effect of that ingredient of storino; upi 
and fixing fertility. The decomposition of the 
successive growth of plants left to rot on the rich: 
soil, continually formed vegetable acid, which! 
slowly and gradually united with the lime in the 
soil, At last these two principles balanced each 
other, and the soil was no longer cedcareous, but 
became neutral. Instead of its former ingredient 
carbonate of lime, it was now supplied with a ve^ 
getable salt of lime. This change of soil does not 
effect the natural growth, which remains the same, 
and thrives as well as when the soil was calca- 
reous — and when brought into cultivation, the soil 
is equally productive under all crops suited tc 
calcareous soils. If the supplies of vegetable mat^ 
ter continue, the soil may even become acid in 
some measure, as may be evidenced by the growth 
of sorrel — but without losing any of its li?rtilit} 
before acquired. The quantity of acidity in any 
soil frequently varies: it is increased by the growth 
of such plants as delight to fe>ed on it, and by the 
decomposition of all vegetable matters. Hence 
the longer a poor fieldremains at rest, and not 
grazedj'^the more acid it becomes — and this evil 
iceeping pace with the benefiis derived, is the 
cause why bo little improvement, or increased pro- 
duct, is obtained from 'putting acid soils under that 
mild treatment. Cultivation not only prevents 
new supplies, but also dipiinishes the acidity at- 



PART I— THEORY. 



29 



•eady ])resent in excess, by exposing it to the at- 
Tiosphere — and the more a soil is exliausted, the 
iiore will its aciditj^ be lessened. 

We have seen Irom the proof furnished by the 
malysis ol' wood ashes, that even poor acid soils 
contain a little salt of lime, and therefore must 
lave been sljf^htly calcareous at some tbrmer time. 
But euch small proportions ol" calcareous earth were 
soon equalled, and then exceeded, by the (brmation 
)f vegetable acid, before much productiveness was 
caused. The soil being thus changed, the plants 
juitable to calcareous soils died off, and gave place 

othei-s which produce, as well as feed and thrive 
)n acidity. Still, however, even these plants fur- 
lish abundant supplies of vegetable matter, sufh- 
'Aent to enrich the land in the highest degree: but 
he antiseptic powerof the acid prevents the leaves 
roni rotting for years, and even then, the soil has 
lo power to pro fit by them. Though conlinually 
vasted, the vegetable matter is always present in 
ibundance; but must remain almost useless; to the 
;oil, until the accompanying acidity shall be de- 
stroyed. 

It may wefl be doubted whether any soil desfi- 
;ute of lime in every form, would not soon become 

1 perfect barren, incapable of producing a spire of 
^rass. No soil thus destitute is known, as the 
slants of all soils show in their ashes the presence 
)f some lime. But it is probable that our subsoils, 
vhich when lefl naked by the washing away of 
he soil, are so generally and totally barren, are 
nade so by their being entirely destitute of lime 
n any form. There is a natural process regularly 
mil at all times working to deprive the subsoil of 
ill lime, unless the soil is abundantly supplied. 
What constitutes soil, and makes the strong and 
ilain mark of separation and distinction between 
:he more or less ftirtile soil and the absolutely 
steril subsoil beneath ] The most obvious cause 
or this difference which might be stated, is the 
iropping of the dead vegetable matter on the 
surface: but this is not sufficient alone to pro- 
luce the efiects, though it may be when aided by 
mother cause of more power. When the most 
jarren soil was formed or deposited by any of the 
laturaJ agents to which such efiects are attributed 
3y geologists, it seems reasonable to suppose that 
;he surface was no richer than any lower part. If 
;hen a very minute proportion of lime had been 
equally distributed through the body of poor soil 
to any depth that the roots of trees could pene- 
;rate, it would follow that the roots would in the 
jourse of time take up all the lime, as all would 
DC wanting for the support of the trees: and their 
3eath and decay would afterwards leave all this 
former ingredient of the soil in general, on the sur- 
face. This process must have the effect, in the 
course of time, of fixing on and near the surface 
the whole of a scanty supply of lime, and on leav- 
ing the subsoil without any. But if there is within 
the reach of the roots more lime than any one croji 
or growth of plants need, then the superfluous 
lime will be permitted to remain in the subsoil, 
which will then be improvable by vegetable sub- 
stances, and readily convertible to productive soil. 
The manner in which lime thus operates, will be 
explained in the next chapter. 

Nearly all the woodbind now remaining in 
Lower Virginia, and much of what has long been 
arable, is rendered unproductive by acidity, and 
successive generations have toiled on them with- 



out remuneration, and without suspecting that 
their worst virgin land wns then richer than their 
manured lots appeared lo be. The cultivator of 
such soil, who knows not its peculiar disease, has 
no other prospect than a gradual decrease of his 
always scanty crops. But if the evil is once un- 
derstood, and the means of hs removal within his 
reach, he has reason to rejoice that his soil was so 
constituted as to be preserved li-om the effects of 
the improvidence of his ibrefathers, who would 
have worn out any land not almost indestructible. 
The presence of acid, by restraining the produc- 
tive powers of the soil, has in a great measure 
saved it from exhaustion; and af^er a course of 
cropping which would have utterly ruined soils 
much better constituted, the powers of our acid, 
land remain not greatly impaired, though dormant, 
and ready to be called into action by merely being 
relieved of its acid quality. A few crops will reduce 
a new acid field to so low a rate of product, that 
it scarcely will pay for its cultivation — but no great 
change is afterwards caused, by continuing scourg- 
ing tillage and grazing, for fifty years longer. 
Thus our acid soils have two remarkable and op- 
posite qualities, both proceeding from the same 
cause: they cannot be enriched by manure, nor 
impoverished by cultivation, to any great extent. 
Qualities so remarkable deserve all our powers of 
investigation: yet their very frequency seems to 
have caused ihem to be overlooked — and our wri- 
ters on agriculture have continued to urge those 
who seek improvement to apply precepts drawn 
from English authors, to soils which are totally 
different from all those for which their instructions 
were intended. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THB aiODE OF OPERATION OF CALCAREOUS 
EARTH IN SOILS. 

Proposition 3. The fertilizing effects of cal- 
careous earth are chiefly produced by its power of 
neutralizing acids, and of comhi ning putrescent 
manures with soils, between which there would 
othertvise he but little, if any, chemical attraction. 

Proposition 4. Poor and acid soils cannot be 
improved durably, or profitably, by putrescent ma- 
nures, without previously making them calcareous, 
and thereby correcting the defect in their consti- 
tution. 

It has already been made evident that the pre- 
sence of calcareous earth in a natural soil causes 
great and durable fertility: but it still remains to 
be determined, to what properties of tliis earth its 
peculiar fertilizing effects are to be attributed. 

Chemistry has taught that silicious earth, in any 
state of division, attracts but slightly, if at all, any 
of the parts of putrescent animal and vegetable 
matters.* But even if any slight attraction really 
exists when the earth is minutely divided tor ex- 
periment in the laboratory of the chemist, it can- 
not be exerted by silicious sand in the usual form 
in which nature gives it to soils — that is, in parti- 
cles comparatively coarse, loose, and open, and 
vet each particle impenetrable to any liquid, or ga- 
seous fluid that might be passing through the va- 



Agr. Chem.page 129. 



30 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



canciee. Hence, silicious earth can have no pow- 
er, chemical or mechanical, either to attract en- 
riching manures, or to preserve them when actu- 
ally placed in contact: and soils in which the 
qualities of this earth greally predominate, must 
give out freely all they have received, not only to 
a growmg crop, but to the sun, air, and water, so 
as soon t(7lose the whole. No portion ol" putres- 
cent matter can remain longer than the comple- 
tion of its decomposition — and if not arrested dur- 
ing this process, by the roots of living plants, all 
will escape in the form of gas, into the air, with- 
out leaving a trace of lasting improvement. With 
a knowledge of these properties, we need not r - 
eort to the common opinion that manure sinlcs 
throucrh sandy soils, to account for its rapid disap- 
pearance.* 

Aluminous earth, by its closeness, mechanically 
excludes those agents of decomposition, heat, air 
and moisture, which sand so freely admits; and 
thereibre clay soils, in which this earth predomi- 
nates, give out manure much more slowly than 
eand, whether for waste or lor use. The practical 
eflect of this is universally understood — that clay 
Goils retain .manure much longer than sand, but re- 
quire much heavier applications to show as much 
effect at once. But as this means of retaining 
manure is altogether mechanical, it serves only 
to delay both its use and its waste. Aluminous 

* Except tlie very s.niili proportions of earthy, sa- 
line and metallic matters that may be in annual and 
vegetable manures, the whole balance of their bulk 
(and the whole of whatever can feed plants,) is com- 
posed of diiierent elements, wliich are known only in 
the forms of gases — into which they must be finally re- 
solved, after goin^ through all the v-arious stages 
of fermentation and decomposition. So far from sink- 
ing in the earth, tiiese final results coukl not be possi- 
bly confined there, but must escape into the atmos- 
phere as soon as thej' take a gaseous form, unless im- 
mediately taken up by the organs of growing plants. 
It is probable that but a small portion of any dressing 
of manure remains long enough in the soil to make 
this final change — and that nearly all is used by grow- 
ing plants, during previous changes, or carried on by 
air and water. During the progress of the many 
changes caused by fermentation and decomposition, 
every soluble product may certainly sink as low as the 
rains penetrate: but it cannot descend lower than the 
water, and that, together with the soluble manure, will 
be again drawn up by the roots of plants. One excep- 
tion, however, seems probable. Should the soil need 
draining, to takeoif water passing beneath the surface, 
the soluble manure might be carried off by those springs; 
and this supposed result receives strong confirmation 
from the complete loss of fertility which is often ob- 
served in spots over a foundation that is springy in wet 
seasons, but which have been kept under tillage, %vith- 
out being drained. We are as yet but little informed 
as to the particular changes made, and the various new 
substances successively formed, and then decomposed, 
during the whole duration of putrescent manures in 
the soil — and no field for discovery would better re- 
ward the investigations of the agricultural chemist. 
For want of this knowledge we proceed at random in 
using manures, instead of being enabled to conform to 
any rule founded on scientific principles: nor can we 
hope so to manage manures with regard to their fer- 
mentation, the time and manner of application, mixing 
with other substances, Etc., as to enable the crops to 
seize every enriching result as soon as it is -produced, 
and to postpone us long as possible the final rcsiiUs of 
decomposition — which ought to be the ends sought in 
every application of putreacent manure. 



earth also exerts some chemical power in attract 
ing and combining with manures, but too weakly 
to enable a clay soil to become rich by natural 
means. For though clays are able to e.xert more 
force than sand, in holding manures, their close- 
ness also acts to deny admittance beneath the sur- 
liice to the enriching matters fiirnished by the 
growth and decay of plants: and thereibre, before 
being brought into cultivation, a poor clay soil 
would derive scarcely any benefit trom its small 
power of combining chemically with putrescent 
matters. If then it is considered how small is the 
(iower of silicious and aluminous earths to receive 
and retain putrescent manures, it will cease to 
cause surprise that such soils cannot be thus en 
riched, with profit, if at all. 

Davy states that both aluminous and cal- 
careous earth will combine with any vegetable ex- 
tract, so as to render it less soluble, and consequent- 
ly not subject to the waste that would otherwise 
take place, and hence "that the soils which con- 
" tain most alumina and carbonate of lime, are 
" those which act with the greatest chemical en- 
" ergy in preserving manures." Here is high au- 
thority for calcareous earth possessing the power 
which my subject requires, but not in so great a 
degree as 1 think it deserves. Davy apparently 
places both earths in this respect on the same foot- 
ing, and allows to aluminous soils retentive povverg 
equal to the calcareous. But though he gives ev- 
idence (trom chemical experiments) of this pow- 
er in both earths, he does not seem to have inves- 
tigated the diilerence of their forces. Nor could 
he deem it very important, holding the opinion 
which he elsewhere ex|resses, that calcareous 
earth acts ''merely by Ibrming a useful earthy in- 
gredient in the soil,"' and consequently attributing 
to it no remarkable chemical effects as a manure. 
I shall offer some reasons for believing that the 
powers of attracting and retaining manure, po.s- 
sessed by these two earths, difiier greatly in force. 

Our aluminous and calcareous soils, through the 
whole of their virgin state, have had equal means 
of receiving vegetable matter; and if their powers 
lor retaining it were nearly equal, so would be 
their acquired fertilif}'. Instead of this, while the 
calcareous soils have been raised to the highest 
condition, many of the tracts of clay soil remain 
the poorest and most worthless. It is true that 
one labored under acidity, from which the other 
was free. But if we suppose nine-tenths of the 
vegetable matter to have been rendered useless by 
that poisonous quality, the remaining tenth, ap- 
plied for so long a time, would have made fictile, 
any soil that had the power to retain the enrich- 
ing matter. 

Many kinds of shells are partly composed of ge- 
latinous animal matter, which I suppose, must be 
chemically combined with the calcareous earth, 
and by that means only is preserved from the pu- 
trelaction and waste that would otherwise certainly 
and speedily take place. Indeed, the large propor- 
tion of animal matter which thus helps to consti- 
tute shells, instead of making them more perisha- 
ble, serves to increase their firmness and solidity. 
When long exposure, as in fossil shells, has de- 
stroyed all animal matter, the texture of the cal- 
careous substance is greatly weakened. A simjile- 
experiment will serve to separate and make mani- 
fest to the eye, the animal matter, which is thus' 
combined with and preserved by the calcareous 



PART I— THEORY. 



31 



earth. Il" a fresh water muscle shell is kept for 
some days immersed in a weak mixture of muri- 
atic acid and water, all the calcareous part will be 
gradually dissolved, leaving the animal matter so 
entile, as to appear still to be a whole shell — but 
which when lilted from the fluid which supports it, 
will {)rove to be entirely a flaccid, gelatinous, and 
putrescent substance, without a particle of calca- 
reous matter being left. Yet this substance which 
is so highly putrescent when alone, would have 
been preserved in combination v.'ith calcareous 
matter, in the shell, for many years, if exposed to 
the usual changes of air and moisture — and if se- 
cured ii'om such changes, would be almost impe- 
rishable. 

Calcareous earth has power to preserve those 
animal matters which are most liable to waste, 
and which give to the sense of smell full evidence 
ivhen they are escaping. Of this, a striking ex- 
•imnle is tlirnished by an experiment which was 
made with care and attention. The carcass of a 
:ow that was killed by accident in May, was laid 
an the surlace of the earth, and covered with 
about seventy bushels of finely divided fossil shells 
ind earth, (mostlj^ silicious,) their proj)osi{ions 
being as thirty-six of calcareous, to sixty-four of 
silicioLS earth. After the rains had settled the 
[leap, It was only six inches thick over the highest 
part of the carcass. The process of putretaction 
tvas so slow, that several weeks passed before it 
ivas over; nor was it ever so violent as 1o throw oft' 
my efTluvia that the calcareous earth did not inter- 
cept in its escape, so that no olfensive smell was 
5ver perceived. In October, the whole heap was 
carried out and applied to one-sixth of an acre of 
ivheat — and the eflect produced lar exceeded that 
)f the calcareous manure alone, which was ap- 
')lied at the same rate on the surrounding land. 
No such power as this experiment indicated (and 
►vhich I have repeated in various modes, and al- 
^a}s with like results,) will be expected from 
3lay. 

Quicklime is used to prevent the escape of of- 
ensive effluvia from animal matter; but its opera- 
ion is entirely different from that of calcareous 
;arth. The former effects its object by "eating" 
)r decomposing the animal substance, (and nearly 
Icstroyins it as manure,) before putrefaction be- 
gins. The operation of calcareous earlh is to 
noderate and retard, but not to prevent putrefac- 
ion — not to destroy the animal matter, but io pre- 
serve it eflectually, by tbrming new combinations 
,vith the products of putrefaction. This impor- 
ant operation will be treated of more fully in a 
subsequent chapter. 

The power of calcareous earth to combine with 
md retain putrescent manure, implies the power 
)f fixing them in any soil to which both are ap- 
plied. The same power will be equally exerted if 
he putrescent manure is applied to a soil which 
lad previously been made calcareous, whether by 
lature, or by art. When a chemical combination 
s formed between the two kinds of manure, the 
|)ne is necessarily as much fixed in the soil as the 
bther. Neither air, sun or rain, can then waste 
!:he putrescent manure, because neither can take it 
rom the calcareous earth, with which it is chcmi- 
;ally combined. Nothing can eflect the separation 
jf the parts of this compound manure, except 
i;he attractive power of growing plants — which as 
nil experience shows, will draw their food from 



tliis combination as fiist as they require it, and as 
easily as from sand. The means then by which 
calcareous earth acts as an improving manure, are. 
completely preservhig putrescent manures from 
waste, and yielding them freely for use. These 
particular benefits, however great they may be, 
cannot be seen very quickly ailer a soil is made 
calcareous, but will increase wifh time, and with 
the means lor obtaining vegetable matters, until 
their accumulation is equal to the soil's power of 
retention. The kind, or the source, of enrichino- 
manure, does not alter the process described. The 
natural growth of the soil, left to die and rot, or 
other putrescent manures collected and applied, 
would alike be seized by the calcareous earth, and 
fixed in the soil. 

This, the most important and valuable operation 
of calcareous earth, gives nothing to the soil— but 
only secures the other manures, and gives them 
wholly to the soil. In this respect, the action of 
calcareous earth on soils, is precisely like that of 
mordants in "setting" or fixing colors. When 
alum, lor example, is used by the dyer for this pur- 
pose, it adils not the slightest tinge of itself— but 
it holds to the clolh, and also to the otherwise fleet- 
ing dye, and thus fixes them permanentlytogether. 
Without the mordant, the color might hav^e been 
equally vivid, but would be lost by the first wet- 
ting of the cloth. 

The next most valuable property of ealcareous 
manures for the improvement of soil, is their poio- 
er of neutralizing acids, which has already been 
incidentally brought forward in the preceding chap- 
ter. According to the views already presented, 
our poorest cultivated soils contain more vegetable 
matter than they can beneficially use— and when 
first cleared, have it in great excess. So antisep- 
tic is the acid quality of poor woodland, that before 
the crop of leaves of one year can entirely rot, two 
or three others will have fallen — and there are al- 
ways enough, at any one time, to greatly enrich 
the soil, if the leaves could be rotted and fixed in 
it, at once.* The presence of acid, by preventing 
or retarding putrefaction, keeps the vegetable 
matter inert, and even hurtful on cultivatexl land; 
and the crops are still further injiu-ed, by taking up 
the poisonous acid, with their nutriment. A°suf- 
ficient quantity of calcareous earth mixed with, 
such a soil, will immediately neutralize the acid, 
and destroy its powers: the soil, released from its 
baneful influence, will be rendered capable, for the 
first time, of exerting the fertility which it really 



*The antiseptic effect of vegetable acid in our soils 
receives some support from the facts established with 
regard to peat soils, in which vegetable acids have 
been discovered by chemical analysis: and though the 
peat or moss soils of Britain dilier entirely from any soils 
in this country, still some facts relating to the former 
class, may throw light on the properties of our own 
soils, different as they may be. Not only does vegeta- 
ble matter remain without putrefaction in peat soils 
and bogs, and serve to increase their deptli by regular 
accessions from the successive annual growths, but 
even the bodies of beasts and men have been found 
unchanged under peat, many years after they had been 
covered. [Alton's Essay on Moss Earth.] It is well 
known that the leaves of trees rot very quickly on the 
rich limestone soils of the western states, while the 
successive crops of several years' growth may be al- 
ways found on our acid woodland, in the diiferent 
stages of tlieir slow decomposition. 



32 



0^ CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



possessed. The benefit thus produced is ahnost 
immediate: but though the soil will show a new 
vio-or in its earliest vegetation, and may even dou- 
ble its first crop, yet no part of that increased pro- 
duct is due tothe direct operation of the calcareous 
manure, but merely to the removal of acidity. 
The calcareous earth, in such a case, has not made 
the soil richer in the slightest degree, but has 
merely permitted it to bring into u&'e the fertility 
it had before, and which was concealed by the 
acid character of the soil. It will be a dangerous 
error for the farmer to suppose that calcareous 
earth can enrich soil by direct means. It destroys 
the worst foe of productiveness, and uses to the 
greatest advantage the fertilizing powers of other 
manures — but of itself it gives no fertility to soils, 
nor furnishes the least food to growing plants- 

Tiiese two kinds of action are by far the most 
powerful of the means possessed by calcareous 
earth, ibr fertihzing soils. It has another however 
of great importance— or rather two others, which 
may be best described together as the power of al- 
tering the texture and absorbency of soils. 

At first it may seem impossible that the same 
manure could produce such opposite effects on 
soils, as to lessen the i'aults of being either too san- 
dy, or too clayey — and the evils occasioned by 
both the want, and the excess of moisture. Con- 
tradictory as this may appear, it is strictly true as 
to calcareous earth. In common with clay, cal- 
careous earth possesses the power of making san- 
dy soils more close and firm — and in common with 
sand, the power of making clay soils lighter. 
When sand and clay thus alter the textures of soils, 
their operation is altogether mechanical; but calca- 
reous earth must have some chemical action also, 
in producing such effects, as its |)ower is far great- 
er than that of either sand or clay. A very great 
quantity of clay would be required to stiffen a 
sandy soil perceptibly, and still more sand would 
be necessary to make a clay soil much lighter — so 
that the cost of such improvement would generally 
exceed the benefit obtained. Greater eflects on 
the texture of soils are derived from less quantities 
of calcareous earth, besidesobtaining the more valu- 
able operation of its other powers. 

Every substance that is open enough for air to 
enter, and the particles of w^hich are not absolute- 
ly impenetrable, must absorb moisture from the 
atmosphere. Aluminous earth reduced to an 
impalpable powder, has strong absorbing powers. 
But this is not the form in which such soils can 
act — and a close and solid clay will scarcely admit 
the passage of air or water, and therefore can- 
not alasorb much moisture except by its siiri'ace. 
Throuj^h sandy soils, the air passes freely; but 
most ot its particles are impenetrable by moisture, 
and therefore these soils are also extremely defi- 
cient in absorbent power. Calcareous earth, by 
rendering clay more open to the entrance of air, 
and closing partially the too open pores of sandy 
soils, increases the absorbent powers of both. To 
increase that power in any soil, is to enable it to 
draw supplies of moisture from the air, in the 
driest weather, and to resist more strongly the 
waste by evaporation, of light rains. A calca- 
reous soil will so quickly absorb a hasty shower of 
rain, as to appear to have received less than ad- 
joining land of different character: and j'et if ob- 
served in summer when under tillage, some days 
after a rain, and when other adjacent land appear? 



dry on the surface, the part made calcareous will 
stiU show the moisture remaining, by its darker | 
color. All the effects li-om this power of calca- 
reous manures may be observed within a tew years L 
after their application — though none of them so L 
strongly marked, as they are on lands made cal- L 
careous by nature, and in which, time has aided jj, 
and perfected the operation. These soils present |j 
great variety in their proportions of sand and clay , 
— ^yet the most clayey is friable enough, and ihd ! 
most sand}'^, firm enough, to be considered soils j 
of good texture: and they resist the extremes of, 
both wet and dry seasons, better than any other , 
soils v/natever. Time, and the increase of vege- t 
table matter, wall bring those qualities to the samet ' ' 
perfection, in soils made calcareous by artificial L j 
means. « 

The subsequent gradual accumulation of vege- jji 
table matter in soils 1o which calcareous manures' \s 
have been apj}lied, must also aid the improvement ||i 
of their texture and absorbing power. The vege- L 
table matter also darkens the color ofthe soil, vvhich 
makes it wanner by more freely absorbing the 
rays of the sun. 

Additional and practical proofsof all the powers <lii 
of calcareous earth will be furnished, when its use 
and effects as manure Avill be stated. I flatter 
myself however, that enough has already beemjar 
said both to establish, and account for, the differ- 
ent capacities of soils for improvement by putres^ 
cent manures. If the power of fixing manures M 
in soils, has been correctly ascribed to calcareous i m 
earth, that alone is enough to show that soils con 
taining that ingredient in sufficient quantity, musttisii 
become rich — and that aluminous and silicious^M 
earths mixed in any proportions, can never fbrnjis 
other than a steril soil. 

The object of this^ essay rs to treat only of cal--l!iil 
careous earth (as before defined) as a manure-, 
and not of pure lime, nor of manures in general. |lif 
Still the nature of that which is properly my sub-JBt 
ject, is so intimately connected with some otheiril*) 
Irinds of nvanures, and is so liable to be confound- 1 1^1 
ed with othere, which act very differently, that fre- 
quent references to both classes have been, and 
will be again necessaiy. To make such refer- 
ences more plain and useful, some general remarks 4® 
and opinions will now be submitted as to the pe- '' 
culiar modes of the operation of various manuresy 
and particularly of lime. 

Until now, I have been careful to say but littl© 
of pure lime, for fear of my meaning being mis- 
taken, from the usual practice of confounding iti 
with calcareous earth — or of considering its first 
and later operations, as belonging to one and the 
same manure. The connexion between the ma- 
nures is- so intimate, yet their actions so distinct, 
that it is necessary to mark the points of re- 
semblance as well as those of difference. 

My own use of lime as a manure has not ex- 
tended beyond a few acres; and I do> not pretend 
to kiTOw any thing fi-omr exjierlence, of its first 
or caustic effects: but Davy's simple and beautiful 
theory of its operation carries conviction with it,' 
and in accordance witJi his opinions I shall state' 
the theory, and thence attempt to deduce its proper 
practical use, 

B-y a sufficient degi-ee of heat, the carbonic acid 
is driven off from shells, limestone, or chalk, and 
the remainder is pure or caustic lime. In thi.^ 
state is has a powerful decomposing power on ali 



PART I— THEORY. 



33 



jtrescent animal and vegetable matters, which 
exerts on every sucli substance in the soils to 
hich it is applied as manure. If the lime thus 
leets with solid and inert vegetable matters, it 
astens their decomposition, renders them soluble, 
[id brings them into use and action as manure, 
lut such vegetable and animal matters as were 
Iready decomposed, and fit to support growing 
lants, are injured by the addition of lime — as the 
lemical action which takes place between these 
odies, forms different compounds which are al- 
ways less valuable than the putrid or soluble mat- 
;rs were, before being acted on by the lime. 
d'^r. Chcm. Lecture 7.] 

This theory of Davy's, will direct us to exj^ect 
rofit from liming all soils containing much unrot- 
;d and inert vegetable matter, as our acid wood- 
md when first cleared, and perhaps worn fields, 
Dvered with broom grass — and to avoid the ap- 
lication of lime, or (what is the same thing,) to 
estroy previously its caustic' quality by ex|)osure 
) the air, on all good soils containing soluble ve- 
etable or animal matters, and on all poor soils 
eficient in inert, as well as active nourishment 
)r plants. The warmth of our climate so much 
ids the fermentation of all putrescent matters in 
oils, that it can seldom be required to hasten it by 
rtificial means: to check its rapidity is much more 
ecessarj^, to avoid the waste of manures in our 
inds. But in England, and still more in Scotland, 
le case is very different. There, the coldness 
nd moisture of the climate greatly retard the fer 
lentation of the vegetable matter that falls on the 
md — so much so, that in certain situations the 
lost favorable to such results, the vegetable cover 
i increased by the deposite of eveiy successive 
ear, and forms those vegetable soils, which are 
ailed vioor, peat, and bog lands. Vegetable mat- 
IV abounds in these soils, sometimes it even forms 
le greater bulk for many feet in depth — but it is 
lert, insoluble, and useless, and the soil is unable 
■) bring any useful crop, though containing vege- 
able matter in sucli excess. Many millions of 
cres in Britain, are of the different grades of peat 
oils, of which not an acre exists in the eastern 
lalf of Virginia. Upon this ground of the difler- 
nce of climate, and its effects on fermentation, I 
educe the opinion that lime would be serviceable 



much more generally in Britain than here: and 
indeed that there are very tew cases in which the 
caustic quality would not do our arable lands more 
harm than good. This is no contradiction of the 
great improvements wliich have been made on 
some flirms by applying lime — because its caustic 
quality was seldom allowed to act at all. Lime is 
continually changing to the carbonate of lime, and 
in practice, no exact line of separation can be 
drawn between the transient effects of the one, and 
the later, but durable improvement from the other. 
Lime powerfully attracts the carbonic acid, of which 
it was deprived by heat, and that acid is univer- 
sally diffused through the atmosphere (though in 
a very small proportion,) and is produced by every 
decomposing putrescent substance. Consequently 
caustic lime on land, is continually absorbing and 
combining with this acid; and with more or less 
rapidity, according to the manner of its application, 
is returning to its Ibrmcr state of mild calcareous 
earth. If spread as a top dressing on grass lands 
— or on ploughed land, and superficially mixed 
with the soil by harrowing — or used in composts 
with fermenting vegetable matter — the Ume is pro- 
bably completely carbonated, before its causticity 
can act on the soil. In no case can lime, applied 
properly as manure, long remain caustic in the 
soil. Thus most applications of lime are simply 
applications of calcareous earth, but acting with 
greater power at first, in projiortion to its quantity, 
because more finely divided, and more equally 
distributed. 

By adopting the views which have been pre- 
sented of the action of calcareous earth, and of 
lime, as manures, and those which are generally 
received as to the mode of operation of other ma- 
nures, the following table has been constructed, 
which may be found useful, though necessarily 
imperfect, and in part founded only on conjecture. 
The various particular kinds of manures are ar- 
ranged in the supposed order of their power, under 
the several heads or charactei's to which they be- 
long; and when one manure possesses several dif- 
ferent modes of action, the comparative force of 
each is represented by the letters annexed — the 
letter a designating its strongest or most valuable 
agency, h the next strongest, and so on. 



34 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



CLASSIFICATION OF MANURES. 



Alimentary, or serving as food 
for plants — as 



Solvent of alimentary ma- 
nures — as 



Mordants — serving to 
other manures in soils — as 



Neutralizing acids — as 



Mechanical, or improving by 
altering the texture of soil — as 



Feathers, hair, woollen rags. 

Pounded bones, (6) 

All putrescent animal and vegetable substances, as 

Dung, 

Stable and farmyard manures, (a) 

Straw, (a) 

Green crops ploughed in. (a) 

Quicklime, (a) 

Potash and soap lie? (a) 

Ashes not drawn.'' (d) 

Paring and burning the surface of the soil, (a) 

Calcareous earth, including 
Lime become mild by age, (a) 
Chalk, (a) 

Limestone gravel, (a) 
Wood ashes, {b) 
Fossil shells, (a) 
Marl (a calcareous clay,) (a) 
Old mortar. 

All calcareous manures, (6) 
Quicklime, (b) 
Potash and soap lie, (6) 
Wood ashes, (c) 

All calcareous manures, (c) 

Marl, (b) 

Clay, 

Sand, 

Fermenting vegetable manures, (&> 

Green manures, {b) 

Unfermented litter. (6) 



Stimulating — as 



Nitre ? 
Common salt ? 



Specific, or furnishing ingre- 
dients necessary for particular 
plants— as 



Sulphate of lime, or gypsum, (for clover,) 
Phosphate of lime, (lor wheat) in 
Bones, (a) and 
Drawn ashes, (a) 
Salt? 



PART 11— 'S^ractice. 



CHAPTER IX. 

SEXERAL OBSERVATIONS ON MARL. AND L,1ME. 
EFFECTS OP CALCAREOUS MANURES ON 
ACID SANDY SOILS, NEWLY CLEARED, 

Proposition 5. Calcareous manures will give 
to our worst soils a power of retaining putres- 
cent manures, equal to that of the best — and will 
cause more productiveness, and yield more profit, 
than any other improvement practicable in Lower 
Virginia. 

The theory of the constitution of fertile and 
jarren soils, has now been regularly discussed: it 
•emains to show its jiractical application, in the 
ise of calcareous earth as a manure. If the opin- 
ons which have been maintained are unsound, 
he attempt to reduce them to practice will surely 
jxpose their futility: and if they pass through that 
rial, agreeing with, and confirmed by facts, tlieir 
ruth and value must stand unquestioned. The 
jelief in the most important of these opinions, 
^the incapacity of poor soils for improvement, and 
ts cause;) directed the commencement of my use 
}f calcareous manures; and the manner of my 
jractice has also been directed entirely by the 
I'iews which have been exhibited. Yet in every 
•espect the results of practice have sustained the 
.heoryof the action of calcareous manures — unless 
.here be found an exception in the damage which 
las been caused by applying too heavy dressings 
.0 weak lands. 

My use of calcareous earth as manure, has been 
ilmost entirely confined to that form of it which 
s so abundant in the neighborhood of our tide- 
(vaters — the beds oC fossil shells, together whh the 
3arth with which they are found mixed. The 
shells are m various states — in some beds generally 
pvhole, and in others, reduced nearly to a coarse 
Dowder. The earth which fills their vacancies, 
md serves to make the whole a compact mass, in 
oiost cases is prineipally silicious sand, and con- 
:ains no putrescent or valuable matter, other than 
:he calcareous. The same effects might be ex- 
Dected from calcareous earth in any other form, 
ivhether chalk, limestone gravel, wood ashes, or 
inie — though the two last have other qualities be- 
sides the calcareous. During the short time that 
ime can remain quick or caustic, after being ap- 
aUed as manure, it exerts (as before stated) a 
solvent power, sometimes beneficial nnd at others 
tiurtful, which has no connexion with its subse- 
ijuent and permanent action as calcareous earth. 

These natural deposites of fossil shells are conri- 
tnonly, but very improperly, called marl. This 
misapplied term is particularly objectionable, be- 
cause it induces erroneous views of this manure. 
Other earthy manures have long been used in 
England under the name of marl, and numerous 
publications have described their general effect; 
and recommended their use. When the same 
name is gi\'en here to a different manure, many 



persons will consider both operations as similar, 
and perhaps may refer to English authorities for 
the purpose of testing the truth of my opinions, 
and the results of my practice.. But no two opera- 
tions called by the same name, can well differ 
more. The process which it is my object to re- 
commend, is simply the application of calcareous 
earth in any form lohatever, to soils wanting that 
r/igred/e/U, and generally quite destitute of it: and 
the propriety of the application depends entirely 
on our knowing that the manure contains cal- 
careous earth, and what proportion, and that the 
soil contains none. In England, the most scien- 
tific agriculturists apply the term marl correctly to 
a calcareous clay, of peculiar texture: but most 
authors, as well as mere cultivators, have used it 
lor any smooth soapy clay, which may, or may 
not have contained, so far as they knew, any pro- 
portion ol calcareous matter. Indeed, in most 
cases, they seem unconscious of the presence, a« 
well as of the importance of that ingredient, by 
not alluding to it when attempting most carefully 
to point out the characters by which marl maj^ be 
known. Still less do they inquire into the deficiency 
of calcareous earth in soils proposed to be marled 
— but apply any earths which either science or 
ignorance may have called marl, to any soils within 
a convenient "distance — and rely upon the subse- 
quent effects to direct whether the operation shall 
he continued or abandoned. Authors of the high- 
est character, (as Sinclair and Young, for exam- 
ple,) when telling of the practical use, and valua- 
ble effects of marl, omit giving the strength of the 
manure, and generally even its nature — and in no 
instance have I found the ingredients of the soil 
stated, so that the reader might learn what kind of 
operation really was described, or be enabled to 
form a judgement of its propriety. From all this, 
it follows that though what is called marling in 
England may sometimes (though very rarely, as 
I infer) be the same chemical operation on the soil 
that I am recommending, yet it may also be, either 
applying clay to sand, or clay to chalk, or true 
marl to either of those soils — and the reader will 
generally be left to guess in every separate case, 
which of all these op'erations is meant by the teiTO 
marling. For these reasons, the practical know- 
ledge to be gathered from all this mass of written 
instruction on marling, will be far less abundant, 
than the inevitable errors and mistakes. The re- 
commendations of mari by English authors, in- 
duced me very early to look to what was here 
called by the same name, as a means for improve- 
ment: but their descriptions of the manure con- 
vinced me that our mari was nothing like theirs, 
and thus actually deterred me from using it, until 
other views instructed me that its value did not 
depend on its having "a soapy feel," or on any 
mixture of clay whatever. [Appendix. G.] 

Nevertheless, much valuable iniormation may 
be obtained from these same works, on calcareous 
manure, or on mari, (in the sense it is used among 
us)— hirt under a different head, viz. lim,e. This 



36 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



manure is generally treated of with as little clear- 
ness or correctness, as is done with marl: hut the 
reader at least cannot he mistaken in this, that the 
ultimate eilect of every application of lime, must 
be to make the soil more calcareous — and to that 
cause solely are to be imputed all the long-continu- 
ed beneficial consequences, and great profits, which 
have been derived from limmg. But excepting 
this one point, in which we cannot be misled by 
ignorance, or want of precision, the mass of writ- 
ings on lime, as well as on calcareous manures in 
f;neral, will need much sifting to yield instruction. 
he opinions published on the operation of lime, 
are so many, so various, and contradictory, that it 
Bcems as if each author had hazarded a guess, 
and added it to a compilation of those of all who 
had preceded him. For a reader of these publica- 
tions to be able to reject all that is erroneous in 
reasoning, and in statements of facts — or inappli- 
cable, on account of difference of soil, or other 
circumstances — and thus obtain only what is true, 
and valuable — it would be necessary for him first 
to understand the subject better than most of those 
whose opinions he was studying. It was not pos- 
sible lor them to be correct, when treating (as most 
do) of lime as one kind of manure, and every dif- 
ferent form of the carbonate of lime, as so many 
others. Only one distinction of this kind (as to 
operation and elTects) should be made, and never 
lost sight of— and that is one of substance, still 
more than of name. Pure or quicklime, and car- 
bonate of lime, are manure.3 entirely diflerent in 
their powers and effects. But it should be remem- 
bered that the substance that was pure lime when 
just burned, often becomes carbonate of lime before 
it is used, (by absorbing carbonic acid from the at- 
mosphere,) — still more frequently before a crop is 
planted — and probably always, before the first crop 
ripens. Thus, it should be borne in mind that the 
n)anure spoken of as lime, is often at first, and 
always at a later period, neither more nor less than 
calcareous earth: that lime, which at different 
periods, is two distinct kinds of manure, is con- 
sidered in agricultural treatises as only one: and to 
calcareous earth are given as many different 
names, all considered to have difTerent values and 
effects, as there are different forms and mixtures 
of the substance presented by nature. 

But however incorrect and inconvenient the 
term marl may be, custom has too strongly fixed 
its application for any proposed change to be adopt- 
ed. Therefore, I must submit to use the word marl 
to mean beds of fossil shells, notwithstandmg my 
protest against the propriety of its being so ap- 
plied. 

The following experiments are reported, either 
on account of ha\dng been accurately made, and 
carefully observed, or as presenting such results as 
have been generally obtained on similar soils, from 
applications of fossil shells to nearly six hundred 
acres of Coggin's Point Farm. It has been my 
habit to make written memoranda of such things; 
and the material circumstances of these expe'ri- 
ments were put in writing at the time they oc- 
curred, or not long after. Some of the experi- 
ments were, from their commencement, designed 
to be permanent, and their results to be measured 
as long as circumstances might permit. These 
were made with the utmost care. But generally, 
when precise amounts are not stated, th"e experi- 
ments were less carefully made, and Uieir results 



reported by guess. Every measurement stated 
of land, or of crop, was made in my presence! liti 
The average strength of the manure was ascer; 
tained by asufficicnt number of analyocs — and thi 
quantity applied was known by measuring some o, 
the loads, and having them dropped at certaii 
distances. At the risk of being tedious, I shal th 
state every circumstance supposed to affect th( 
results of the experiments — and the manner o 
description, and of reference, necessary to use, wil 
require a degree of attention that few readers ma^ 
be disposed to give, to enable them to derive thi 
full benefit of these details. But however disa, 
grecable it may be to give to them the necessan 
attention, I will presume to say that these expcri 
ments deserve it. They will present practica, 
proofs of what othenvise would be but uncertain' 
theory — and give to this essay its principal clainr|ni 
to be considered useful and valuable. 

When these operations were commenced, '. 
knew of no other expei'iments having been madi 
with fossil shells, except two, which had been trier 
long before, and were considered as proving 1h(t 
manure too worthless to be resorted to again. 
Inexperience, and the total want of any practica 
guide, caused my applications, for the first fevi 
years, to be frequent!}- injudicious, particularly as 
to the quantities laid on. For this reason, thes»; 
experiments show Avhat was actually done, anc 
the eflects thence derived, and not what bettef 
information would have directed, as the most pro 
filable course. 

The measurements of corn that will be reported 
were all made at the time and place of gathering? 



* The earliest of these old experiments was made ar 
Spring Garden in Surry, about 1775 Tfie extent marll 
ed was eight or ten acres, on poor sandy land. Nothing 
is now known of the effects for the first twenty-five 
or thirty years, except that they were too inconsideraa 
ble to induce a repetition of the experiment. The 
system of cultivation was as exhausting as was usua; 
during that time. Since 1812, the farm has been undei 
mild and improving management generally. No cart 
has been taken to observe the progress either of im 
provement or exhaustion on the marled piece: but there 
is no doubt but that the product has continued for th<i 
last fifteen years better than that of the adjacent land 
Mr. Francis Rutfin, the present owner of the farm 
believed that the product was not much increased in 
favorable seasons; but when the other land sufTerec 
either from too much wet, or dry weather, the crop or 
the marled land was comparatively but slightly injured' 
The loose reports that have been obtained respecting 
this experiment, are at least conclusive in showing th"! 
permanency of the effects produced. 

The other old experiment referred to, was made at 
Aberdeen, Prince George county, in 1803, by Mr 
Thomas Cocke. Three small spots (neither exceeding 
thirty yards square,) of poor land, kept before anc 
since generally under exhausting culture, were cover-i 
ed with this manure. He found a very inconsiderabk 
early improvement, which he thought altogether ar 
inadequate reward for the labor of applying the marl 
The experiment being deemed of no value, was but 
little noticed until the commencement of my use of the 
same manure. On examination, the improvement ap- 
peared to have increased greatly on two of the pieces 
but the third was evidently the worse for the applica- 
tion. For a number of years after making this ex- 
periment, Mr. Cocke considered it as giving full prool 
of the worthlessness of the manure. But more correct 
views of its mode of operation have since induced liim 
to recommence its use, and no one has met with more 
success, or produced more valuable improvements, ;j 



PART I— PRACTICE. 



37 



rhe measure used tor all except ver>' small quan- 
ties, was a barrel liolding five bushels when filled 
ivel, and which being filled twice with ears of 
orn, well shaken to settle them, and heaped, was 
stimated to make five bushels of grain — and the 
Toducts will be reported in grain, according to 
lis estimate. This mode of measurement will 
est serve ibr comparing results — but in most cases 
; is ffcir from giving correctly the actual quantity 
f dry and sound grain, lor the tollowing reasons. 
rhe common large soft grained white corn was 
lie kind cultivated, and which was always cut 
own for sowing wheat before the best matured 
/as dry enough to grind, or even to put up in cribs; 
nd when the ears iiom the poorest land were in 
state to lose considerably more by shrinking. 
let, for fear of some mistake occurring if measure- 
lents were delayed until the crop was gathered, 
lese experiments were measured when the land 
.'as ploughed lor wheat in October. The subse- 
uent loss from shrinking would of course be greaf- 
st on the corn from the poorest and most l)ack- 
rard land, as there, most defective and unri])e ears 
-ould always be found. Besides, every ear, how- 
ver imperfect or rotten, was included in the mea- 



surement. For these several reasons, the actual 
increase of product on the marled land was always 
greater than will appear from the comparison of 
(Quantities measured: and from the statements of 
all such early measurements, there ought to be 
allowed a deduction, varying from ten per cent, 
on the best and most forward corn, to thirty per 
cent, on the latest and most defective. Having 
stated the grounds of this estimate, practical men 
can draw such conclusions as their experience may 
direct, from the dates and amounts of the actual 
measurements that will be reported. Some careful 
trials of the amount of shrinkage in particular 
experiments vvill be hereafter stated. 

No grazing has been permitted on any land 
from which experiments will be reported, unless it 
is specially stated. 

As most of the experiments on new land were 
made on a single piece of twenty-six acres a ge- 
neral description or plan of the whole Avill enable 
me to be better understood, as well as to be more 
concise, by references being made to the annexed 
figure. It forms part of the ridge lying between 
James River and the nearest stream running into 
Powell's Creek. The surface is nearly level. The 




oil in its natural elate verj' similar throughout, but 
ne part next to the line B C somewhat more sandy, 
nd more productive in corn, than the part next 
3 A D — and in like manner, it is lighter along A 
, than nearer to D /. The whole soil, a gray 
ilicious acid loam, not more than two inches deep 
t first, resting on a yellowish sandy subsoil fi'om 
ne to two feet deep, when it changes to clay, 
ifatural growth mostly pine — next in quantity, 
aks of different kinds — alittle of dogwood and chin- 
uepin — whortleberry bushes throughout in plenty, 
rhe quality of the soil is better than the average 
if ridge lands in general. 

Experiment 1. 

T'he part B C g /;, about eleven acres, grubbed 
ind cut down in the winter of 1814-15 — suffered 
lie three 5'ears with most of the wood and brush 
in it. February 1818, my earliest application of 
narl was made on B C m I, about 2|- acres. Marl, 
^/j- of calcareous earth, and the balance silicious 
and, except a very small proportion of clay: the 
helly matter finely divided. Quantity of marl to 
he acre, one hundred and twenty-five to two hun 
Ired heaped bushels. The whole B C g h coul 
ered, and planted in its firet crop of corn. 



Results. 1818. The corn on the marled land, 
evidently much better — supposed difference, forty 
per cent. 

1819. In wheat. The difference as great, per- 
haps more so — particularly to be remarked from 
the commencement to the end of the winter, by 
the marled part preserving a green color, while 
the remainder was seldom visible from a short 
distance, and by the spring, stood much thinner, 
from the greater number of plants having been 
killed. The line of separation verj' perceptible 
through both crops. 

1820. At rest. During the summer marled 
all B C g h, at the rate of five hundred bushels, 
without excepting the space before covered, and a 
small part of that made as heavy as one thousand 
bushels, counting both dressings. The shells now 
generally coarse — average strength of the marl, 
fVrr of calcareous earth. In the winter after, 
ploughed three inches deep as nearly as could be, 
which made the whole new surface yellov/, by 
bringing barren subsoil to the top. 

Results continued. 1821. In corn. The whole 
a remarkable growth for such a soil. The oldest 
(and heaviest) maried piece better than the other, 
but not enough so to show the dividing line. The 



38 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



average product of the whole supposed to have 
been tully twenty-five bushels to the acre. 

1822. " In wheat — and red clover sowed on all 
the old marling, and one or two acres adjoining. 
A severe drought in June killed the greater part 
of the clover, but left it much the thickest on the 
oldest marled piece, so as again to show the di- 
viding line, and to yield in 1823, two middling 
crops to the scythe — the first that 1 had known ob- 
tained from any acid soil, without high improve- 
ment from putrescent manures. 

1823. At rest — nothing taken off, except the 
clover on B C m I. 

1824. In corn — product seemed as before, and 
its rate may be inferred from the actual measure- 
ments on other parts, which will be stated in the 
next experiment, the whole being now cleared, 
and brought under like cultivation. 

Experiment 2. 

The part e f n o, cleared and cultivated in corn 
at the same times as the preceding — but treated 
differently in some other respects. This had been 
deprived of nearly all its wood, and the brush 
burnt, at the time of cutting down — and its first 
crop of corn (1818) being very inferior, was not 
followed by wheat in 1819. This gave two years 
of rest before the crop of 1821 — and five years 
rest out of six, since the piece had been cut down. 
As before stated, the soil rather lighter on the side 
next to o e, than n f. 

March, 1821. A measured acre near the mid- 
dle, covered with six hundred bushels of calca- 
reous sand (^%"j;,) the upper layer of another body 
of fossil shells. 

Results. 1821. In corn. October — the four 
adjoining quarter acres, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, extend- 
ing nearly across the piece, two of them within, 
and two without the marled part, measured as 
follows: 



Not marled, No. 1, 
Do. No. 4, 

Marled, No. 2, 
Do. No. 3, 



Si 



average to the acre 
22^ bushels of grain. 

average 33;^ bushels. 

The remainder of this piece was marled before 
sowing wheat in 1821. 

1823. At rest. 

1324. In corn — distance 5\ by 3^ feet, making 
2433 stalks to the acre. October 11th, measured 
two quarter acres very nearly coincidmg with Nos. 
2 and 3 in the last measurement. They now 
made 

No 2. 7 bushels 3ipecks, ") 

or per acre, - - 31.1 > average 31. 2| 

No 8. 8 bushels, - - 32 ) 

Average in 1821, - - - 33.] 

Experiment 3. 

The part e f g h was cut down in January, 
1821, and the land planted in corn the same year. 
The coultering and after-tillage very badly exe- 
cuted, on account of the number of whortleberry 
and other roots. As much as was convenient was 
marled at six hundred bushels (fVv) and the dress- 
ing limited by a straight line. Distance of corn 
5^'by 3i- feet— 2282 stalks to the acre. 

72esi/7/s.'^^1821. October — on each side of the 
dividing line, a piece of twenty-eight by twenty- 
one corn hiL.s measured as follows: 



No. 1. 588 stalks, not marled, 2 bush- 
els, equal to 7| the acreli 
No. 2. 588 stalks, marled, 4^ 16f .... * 

1822. In wheat, the remainder having beei 
previously marled. 

1823. At rest. During the following winter i 
was covered with a second dressing of marl a 
250 bushels (yVir) making 850 bushels to the acn 
altogether. 

1824. In corn. Two quarter acres, chosen at 
nearly as possible on the same spaces that wen 
measured in 1821, produced as follows: 

No. 1. 8 bushels, 2 pecks, or to the acre, 34 
The same in 1821, before marling, 7.3| 



No. 2. 7 bushels, 2^ pecks, or to the acre, 30.2 
The same in 1821, after marling, 16.1^ 



1825. The whole twenty-six acres, including 
the subjects of all these experiments and observa 
tions, were in wheat. The first marled piece ir 
Exp. 1, was decidedly the best — and a gradua 
decline was to be seen to the latest. I have ne- 
ver measured the [)roduct of wheat from any ex-Jj 
periment, on account of the great trouble and diffi'l 
culty that would be encountered. Even if the 
wheat from small measured spaces could be reap 
ed and secured separately, during the heavy la 
bors of harvest, it would be scarcely possible af^( 
terwards to carry the different parcels through al. 
the operations necessary to show exactly the cleai 
grain derived from each. But without any sepa-^fj 
rate measurement, all my observations convince 
me, that the nicrease of wheat from marling, is 
least equal to that of corn, during the first few jj 
years, and is certainly greater afterwards, in com 
parison to its product before using marl. 

It was from the heaviest marled part of Exp. 11, 
that soil was analysed to find how much calca^ 
reous earth remained in 1826, (page 26.) Before 
that time the marl and soil had been well mixed, 
by ploughing to the depth of five inches. One oli 
the specimens of this soil then examined, consist-t 
ed of the following parts — the surface, and conse-' 
quently the undecomposed weeds upon it, being; 
excluded. } 

1000 grains of soil yielded ' 

769 grains of sllicious sand moderately fine, 
15 finer sand, 



784 
8 

180 

28 

1000 



calcareous earth, from the manure 
applied, 

finely divided clay, vegetable mat- 
ter, &c. 

lost in the process. 



This part, it has been already stated, was ori- 
ginally lighter than the general texture of the 
land. 

Experiment 4. 

The four acres marked A D n o were cleared im 
the winter 1823-4. The lines p q and r s di\ide m 
the piece nearly into quarters. The end nearest 
Apo is lighter, and best for corn, and was still 
better for the first crop, oAving to nearly that hal. 
havino- been accidentally burnt over. After twice 



PART I— PRACTICE. 



39 



oultering, marl and putrescent manures were ap- 
lied as Ibllows; and the products measured, Oc- 
jber 11th, the same year. 

' s q not marled nor manured — ^produced on a 
uarter acre (No. 4.) of soft and badly filled corn, 
■ Bush. P. 

' bushels, or per acre - - 12. 

' q r and r p, marled at 800 bushels (iVo ) 
ly three measurements of different pieces — 
Quarter acre (No. 1.) 5 bushels, very near- 
ly, or --.--. 19.31 
3io-hth (No. 2.) 2.3i > average < 22.2 
Eighth (No. 3.) 3.1^ 5 24.1* I 27. 

s t manured at 900 to 1100 bushels to the 
icre, of which, 
Quarter acre (No. 5.) with rotted corn 

stalks, from a winter cow-pen, gave 5.2^ 22.2 
Sighth (No. 6.) with stable manure, 



4.1^ 



35.2 



Eighth (No. 7.) covered Avith the 

same heavy dressings of stable manure, 
and of marl also, gave 4.2 36. 

p w, marled at 450 bushels, brought not so good 
I crop as the adjoining r p at 800. 

The distance was 5^ by 3^ feet. Two of the 
luarter acres were measured by a surveyor's 
hain (as were four other of the experiments ol 
824,) and found to vary so little from the distance 
ounted by corn rows, that the difference was not 
vorth notice. 

1825. In wheat: the different marked pieces 
eemed to yield in comparison to each other, pro- 
lortions not perceptibly different from those of 
he preceding crop — but the best not equal to any 
if the land marled before 1822, as stated in the 
St, 2nd, and 3rd experiments. 

1827. Wheat on a very rough and imperfect 
ummer fallow. This Avas too exhausting a 
ourse (being three grain crops in the four shift 
otation,) — but was considered necessary to check 
he growth of bushes that had sprung from the 



roots still living. The crop Avas small, as might 
have been expected from its preparation. 

1828. Corn— in rows five feet apart, and about 
three feet of distance along the rows, the seed be- 
ing drojjped by the step. Owing to unfavorable 
weather, and to insects and other vermin, not 
more than half of the first planting of this field 
lived — and so much replanting of course caused 
its product to be much less matured than usual, on 
the weaker land. All the part not marled, (and 
more particularly that manured,) was so covered 
by sorrel, as to require ten times as much labor in 
weeding as the marled parts, which, as in every 
other case, bore no sorrel. October 15th, gather- 
ed and measured the corn from the following 
spaces, which Avere laid off (by the chain) as 
nearly as could be, on the same land as in 1824. 

The products so obtained, together with those 
of the preAaous and subsequent courses of tillage, 
vvall be presented beloAv, in a tabular form, for the 
purpose of being more easily compared. 

On the wheat succeeding this crop, cloA^er seed 
Avas soAved, but very thinly, and irregularly. On 
the parts not marled, only a tcAV yards Avidth re- 
ceived seed, Avhich the next year shoAved the ex- 
pected result of scarcely any living clover. On 
the marled portions, the groAvth of cloA^er Avas of 
middling quality: Avas not moAved nor grazed, but 
seed gathered by hand both in 1830 and 1831. 

1832. Again in corn. It Avas soon evident 
that much injury was caused to the marled half 
q p n, by the too great quantity applied. A con- 
siderable proportion of the stalks, during their 
groAvth, showed strongly the marks of disease 
from that cause, and some AA'ere rendered entirely 
barren. A feAV stalks only had appeared hurt by 
the quantity of marl, in 1828. On the lightly 
marled piece lo p, and Avhere the heaviest marling 
AA'as accompanied by stable manure, there has ap- 
peared no sign of injury. The products Avere as 
foUoAvs: 



DESCRIPTION. 



Not marled or manured. 
Marled at 800 bushels. 

The same, 

The same, 

Cow-pen manure, 900 to 1100 bushels, 
Stable manure, 900 to 1100 bushels, - 
Marl and stable manure, both as above. 

Marled at 450 bushels, 



PRODUCTS OF GRAIN PER ACRE. 



1st course. 

.1824 
October 11. 



Bush. Pecks, 
12 



3^ 



19 
22 
27 

22 2 
35 2 
36 
Less than 
p (800) 



2nd course. 

1828 
October 15. 



Bush. Pecks. 
21 1 

28 1^ 

31 0^ 

25 2 

29 

33 2 

Equal to r p 



3rd course. 

1832 
October 26. 



Bush. Pecks. 
17 3J 

28 



Better than* 7 
28 1 
37 3^ 



An accidental omission prevented the measurement of s t'5, in 



1832. 



This experiment has been made Avith much 
"ouble, and every care bestOAved to insure accu- 
acy. Still several causes have operated to affect 
he correctness of the results, and to prevent the 
omparative products showing the true rate of 
nprovement either from marl, or the putrescent 
[lanure. These causes Avill be briefly stated. 

1st. The quantity of marl (800 bushels) on q r 
nd r » is nearly double the amount that ought to 
Rve been used: and this eiTor has not only in- 



creased the expense uselessly, but has served to 
prevent the increase of product that Avould other- 
Avise haA^e taken place. This loss is proA^ed by the 
gradual increase, and at last the greater product 
of 10 p marled at only 4.50 bushels. 

2nd. The com])arati\'e superiority of all the 
marled ground to s q hot marled, is lessened by 
this circumstance: most of the large logs, as well 
as all the small branches, Avere burnt upon the 
land, Avhen it was cleared in 1824, before the ex- 



40 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



periment was commenced; and the ashes have 
durably improved a spot where each of these 
large fires were made on s q, but have done no 
good, and perhaps have been injurious, to the 
marled pieces that were made sufficientlj^ calca- 
reous without the addition of ashes. At least, the 
good effect of ashes is very evident on s q, and 
has helped somewhat to increase all its measured 
products, and no such benefit has been visible on 
the marled parts. 

3rd. The quantity of putrescent manure applied 
to s f (900 to 1100 bushels) was much too great 
both for experiment and profit: and the quantity, 
together with the imperfectly rotted state of the 
stable manure, has given more durability to the 
effect, than is to be expected from a more judicious 
and economical rate of manuring. 

For these several reasons, it is evident that far 
more satisfactory results than even these, would 
have been obtained if only half as much of either 
marl or manure had been applied. 

There are other circumstances to be considered, 
which if not attended to, will cause the compara- 



tive increase or decrease of product m this experi 
ment to be misunderstood. It is well known tha 
poor land put under tillage immediately after beinj' ^ , 
cleared, as this was in 1824, will not yield near as 
much as on the next succeeding course of crops 
This increase, which depends merely on the ef 
Sects of time, operates independently of all othe 
means for improvement that the land may possess 
and its rate, in this experiment, may be fairly es- 
timated by the increase on the piece s q from 182^ 
to 1828. The increase here, where time onlji '| 
acted, was from 12 to '2\\ bushels: but as the con 
o:athered here was always much the most imper 
tectly ripened, and would therefore lose the mos 
by shrinking, I will suppose eight bushels to b(J 
the rate of increase from time, and that so mucl 
of the product of all the pieces should be attributec 
to that cause. Then to estimate alone the in 
creased or diminished effects of marl, or manure 
on the other pieces, eight bushels should be de 
ducted from all the diffierent applications, the esti 
mate will stand thus: 



1824 



DEDUCT FOR 
TIME. 



INCREASE. 



DECREASE. 



qr 1 
rp 2 
rp 3 
St 5 
«/ 6 



B. P. 
19 3.i 

22 2 
35 2 



B. P. 

28 14 
31 



From 800 bushels of marl. 

800 bushels of marl. 

1000 bushels of cow-pen manure.' 

1000 bushels of stable manure. 



Even the piece covered with both marl and sta- 
ble manure, (w f) shows according to this esti- 
mate a diminished effect equal to 10^ bushels; 
which was owing to the marl not being able to 
combme with, and fix so great a quantity of ma- 
nure, in addition to the vegetable matter left by its 
natural growth of wood. The piece w p marled 
at 450 bushels alone, has shown a steady in- 
crease of product at each return of tillage, and 
thereby has given evidence of its being the only 
improvement made in such manner as both judge- 
ment and economy would have directed. 



CHAPTER X. 

ETFECTS OF CALCARKOUS MANUUE ON ACID 
CLAY SOILS, RECENTLY CLEARED. 

The two next experiments were made on ano- 
ther field of thirty acres of very uniform quality, 
marled and cleared in 1826, and the succeeding 
years. The soil is very stiff, close, and intracta- 
ble under cultivation — seems to contain scarcely 
any sand — but in fact, about one-half of it 
is composed of silicious sand, which is so 
fine, when separated, as to feel like flour. Only 
a small proportion of the sand is coarser than this 
state of impalpable powder. Aluminous earth of 
a dirty fawn color forms nearly all of its remaining 
ingredients. Before being cleared, the soil is not 
an inch deep, and all below for some feet is ajipa- 



rently composed of the like parts of clay and fine 
sand. This is decidedly the most worthless kino! 
of soil, in its natural state, that our district fun 
nishes. It is better for wheat than for corn, though 
its product is contemptible in every thing: it is dif 
ficult to be made wet, or dry — and therefore suf 
fers more than other soils from both dry and wen 
seasons, but especially from the former. It is al 
most always either too wet or too dry for plough 
ing — and sometimes it will pass through botl 
states, in two or three clear and warm days, 
broken up early in winter, the soil, instead of be 
ing pulverized by frost, like most clay lands, runn 
together again by freezing and thawing — and bji 
March, will have a sleek (though not a veryi 
even) crust upon the surface, quite too hard t( 
plant on before a second ploughing. The natura 
growth is principally white and red oaks, a smalle i 
proportion of pine, and whortleberry bushelii 
throughout. 

Experiment 5. 
I 

I On one side of this field a marked spot of thirty I 
jfive yards square was left out, when the adjoining 
jland was marled at the rate of five hundred to sij 
hundred bushels (jj^'^) to the acre. Paths for tin 
! carts were opened through the trees, and the mar 
I dropped and spread in January, 1826: the lane 
] cleared the following winter. Most of the wooc 
was carried off for fuel — the remaining logs anc 
I brush burnt on the ground, as usual, at such dis 
tances as were convenient to the laborers. This 



MRT II— PRACTICE. 



41 



irt was perhaps the poorer, because wood had 
•eviously been cut here for fuel; though only a 
w trees had been taken, here and there, without 
ly thing like clearing the land. 
Hcs Lilts. 1827. Planted in corn the whole re- 
snt clearing of fifteen acres — all marled, except 
le spot left out lor experiment: broken up late 
id badly, and worse tilled, as the land was gene- 
lUy too hard, until the season was too far ad- 
mced to save the crop* The whole product so 
nail, that it was useless to attempt to measure 
:e products. The ditierence would have been 
ily between a few imperfect ears on the marled 
•ound, and still less — indeed almost nothing — on 
lat not marled. 

1828. Again in corn: as well broken and cul- 
i^ated as usual for such land. October 18th — cut 
)vvn lour rows of corn running through the land 
3t marled, and eight others, alongside on the 
arlcd — all fifty feet in length. The rows had 
jen laid oil' lor five and a hall feet — but were 
un.d to vary a few inches — for which the proper 
lowance was made, by calculation. The spaces 
iken for measurement were caused to be so small, 
i^ a part of the corn liavnig been inadvertently 
It down and shocked, just betbre. The ears were 
lelled when gathered; and the products, mea- 
ired m a vessel which held (by trial) l^ of a 
ishel, were as follows: 

On land not marled 

rows, average 5 feet, and 50 in length, (500 

square feet) - - 13^ measures, 

■ to the acre, - - 7\ bushels. 
On adjoining marled land 

rows, average 5 feet 1-^- inches by 50 feet ^512 
square feet, - - 25f mea,sures, 

' to the acre, - - 13^ bushels. 

inext rows, 5 feet 4| inches by 50 = 537 square 
feet, - - . 27^ measures, 

' to the acre, - - 14 bushels. 

'■ 1829. In wheat. 

■ 1830. At rest — the weeds, a scanty cover. 

■ 1831. In corn. October 20th — measured by 
• e chain equal spaces, and gathered and measured 
leir products. The corn not marled was so ini- 
trfectly filled, that it was necessary to shell it. Cor 
irly measuring the quantity. The marled par- 
ih, being of good ears generally, were measured 
11 usual, by allowing two heaped measures of 
irs, for one of grain. 



On land not marled 
>3 square yards made 
to the acre, 



3 gallons, 
5 bushels. 



On marled land close adjoining on one side, 
3 square yards made rather more than 6 gal- 
lons — to the acre, - - 10 bushels. 
3 square yards on another side, made not quite 
8 gallons, or to the acre, - 12 bushels. 

The piece not marled coincided Avith that mea- 
red in 1828, as nearly as their difference of size 
id shape permitted— as did the last named marl- 
piece, with the two of 1828. The last crop 
s greatly injured by the wettest summer that I 
ive ever known, which has caused the decrease 
product exhibited in this experiment — which 
11 be best seen in this form: 
B 



Not marled, 
Marled, (averaged,) 



Product of grain to the acre. 



1828. 
October 18. 



Bush. Pecks. 
7 1 
13 3 



1831. 
October 20. 



Bush. Pecks. 
5 
11 



lixperimcnt 6. 



The remainder of the thirty acres, was grubbed 
during the winter 1826-7 — marled the next sum- 
mer at five hundred to six hundred bushels the 
acre: marl y^'n- A rectangle (A) 11 by 13 poles, 
was laid oft' bj- the chain and compass, and lefl 
without marl. All the surrounding land sut 



to be equal in quality with A— and all level, ex- 
cept on the sides E and B, which were partly 
sloj)ing, but not otherwise different. The soil suit- 
ed to the general description given before — no 
natural difference known or suspected, between 
the land on which Exp. 5 was made, and this, ex- 
cept that the latter had not been robbed of any wood 
for fuel, before clearing. The large trees (all 
more than ten inches through,) were belted, and 
the smaller cut down in the beginning of 1828, 
and all the land west of the line e f Avas planted 
in corn. iV.s usual, the tillage bad, and the crop 
very small. The balance lying east of e /, was 
coultered once, but as more labor could not be 
spared, nothing more was done with it until 
the latter part- of the winter 1829, Avhen it was 
broken by two-horse ploughs, oats sowed and 
covered by trowel ploughs — then clover sowed, 
and a wooden-tooth harrow passed over to cover 
the seed, and to smooth down, in some measure, 
the masses of roots and clods. 

Results. 1829. The oats produced badly— but 
yielded more for tlie labor required, than corn 
would have done. The young clover on the marl- 
ed land was remarkably good, and covered the 
surface completely. In the unmarled part. A, only 
two casts through had been sown, for comparison, 
as I knev/ it would be a waste of seed. This 
looked as badly as had been expected. 

1830. The crop of clover would have been con- 



42 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



eidered excellent for good land, and most extraor- 
dinary for so poor a soil as this. The strips sow- 
ed fhroug-l'i A, hud but little left alive, and that 
scarcely of a size to be observed, except one or 
two small tufrs, where I supposed some marl had 
been deposited by the cleaning of a plough, or 
that ashes had been left, from burning the brush. 
The' growth of clover was left undisturbed until 
after midsummer, when it was grazed by my 
small stock ol" cattle, but not closely. - 

1831. Com on the whole field. October 20th, 
measured carefully half an acre (10 by 8 poles) in 
A, the same in D, and hall' as much (10 by 4) in 
E. No more space could be taken on this side, 
for fear of getting within the injurious influence of 
the contiguous woods. No measurement was 
made on the side B, because a large oak, which 
belting had not killed, afTectcd its product consid- 
erably. Another accidental circumstance jjreven- 
ted my being able to know the product ol" the side 
C, Avhich however was evidently and greatly in- 
lerior to all the marled land on which oats and clo- 
ver had been raised. This side had been in 
corn, followed by wheat, and then under its spon- 
taneous growth of weeds. The corn on each of 
the measured spaces was cut down, and put in 
separate shocks — and on Nov. 25th, Avlien well 
dried, the parcels were shucked and measured, 
before being moved. We had then been gath- 
ering and storing the crop, for more than fifteen 
days — and therelbre these measurements may be 
considered as shov/ingthe amount of dry and firm 
grain, without any deduction being required for 
shrinkage. 

Bushels. Pecks. 

A (Half acre) made 7^ bushels of 

ears, or of grain to the acre, - 7 1 

D (Half acre) 16^ - - 16 3 

E (Quarter acre) 11 - - 22 

The sloping surftice of ihe side E, prevented 
water fioin lying on it, and therefore it suffered 
less, perha])s not at all, from the extreme wetness 
of the summer, which evidently injured the growth 
on A and D, as well as of all the other level parts 
of the field. 

1832. The field in wheat, 

1833. In clover, Avhich was grazed, though 
not closely, after it had reached its full growth. 

1834. Com, a year earlier than would have 
been permitted by the four-shift rotation. The 
tillage was insufficient, and made si ill worse by 
the commencement of severe drought before the 
last ploughing was completed, which was thereby 
rendered very laborious, and imperfect withal. 
The drought continued through all August, and 
greatly injured the whole crop of corn. 

Results contimied. October 22d. Marked off 
by a chain half an acre within the space A (8 by 
10 poles) as much in D, and a quarter acre (10 by 
4 poles) in each of the other three sides C, B, and 
E — having each of the last lour spaces as near as 
could be to the outlines of the space A. The pro- 
ducts carefully measured, (in the ears) yielded as 
follows: 

B. P. 
A, not marled, yielded 6 0^ of grain, to the acre. 

D marled, 19 3| 

E do. 20 1 

C do. ,20 2 

B do. 20 li 



In comparing these products with those of thi 
same land in. 1831, stated above, it should be re^ 
membered that the corn formerly measured wa! 
dry, while that of the last measurement had ye 
to lose greatly by shrinking. As after early ga 
thering, the corn from the poorest land of coursi 
will lose most by drying, and as the cars on I 
were generally very defective and badly filled, i' 
the measurement had been made in the sound and 
well dried grain of each parcel, the product of I 
could not have exceeded one-fourth of that of the 
surrounding marled land. 

But though these differences of product preseni c 
the improvement caused by marling m a strikiiu 
point of view, this close and stubborn soil at bcsli 
is very unfit for the corn crop — and its highest va Hi 
lue is found under clover^ and in wheat on clover! ea 
of which some proofs will be found in the next ex I 'J 
periment. 

Experiment 7, 

Another piece of land of twenty-five acres, oi 
soil and qualities similar to the last described (Expf 
5 and 6,) was cleared in 1818, and about six aerei 
marled in 1819, at about three hundred and fiftj 
bushels. The course of cultivation was as fol- 
lows. 

1820 — Corn — benefit from marl very unequa' 
— supposed to vary between twenty-five and eigh I"' 
ty per cent. 

1821. Wheat — the benefit derived greater. 

1822. At rest. 

1823. Ploughed early for corn, but not planted 
The Avhole marled at the rate ol six hundred bush if" 
els (f^nj)again ploughed in August, and sowed in 
wheat in October. The old marled space, more' 
lightly covered, so as to make the whole nearljl 
equal. 

1824. The wheat much improved. 
1825 and 182G— at rest. 

1827. Corn. 

1828. In wheat, and sowed in clover. 
1829 — The crop of clover was heavier than anjn \i 

I had-everseen in this ])art of the country, excepjt li 
on rich natural soil, where gypsum was used, an(( j 
acted well. The growth was thick, but unequa 
in height, (owing probably to unequal spreadinf4 
of the marl,) — it stood from fifteen to twenty-ibui; 
inches high. The first growth was mowed fb' 
hay, and the second left to improve the land. 

1830. The clover not mowed. Fallowed in 
August, and sowed wheat in October, after a se 
cond ploughing. 

1831. The wheat was excellent — almost heavi 
enough to be in danger of lodging. I suppose* 
the product to be certainly twenty bushels — per 
haps twenty-five, to the acre. 

As it had not been designed to make any exper 
iment on this land, the progress of improvemeni 
was not observed with much care. Butwhateve 
were the intermediate steps, it is certain that thi' 
land, at first, was as poor as that forming the sub 
jects of the two preceding experiments in tbi 
unimproved state, (the measured products c 
which have been given) — and that its last cro). 
was three or four times as great as could have bee)' ■ 
obtained, if marl had not been applied. The pe' ' 
culiar fitness of this kind of soil for clover arte 
marling, will require furttier remarks, and will b 
again referred to hereafter. 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



43 



CHAPTER XL 

tIE EFFECTS OF CAr.CARROUS MANURES, ON 
ACID SOILS nEDUCED BV CULTIVATION. 

Proposition 5. Continued. 

My use of fossil shells has been more extensive 
1 impoverished ncid soils, than on all other kinds, 
id has never failed to produce striking improve- 
ent. Yet it lias unfortunately happened, that 
e t.\7o experiments made on such land with most_ 
ire, and on which I relied m.ainly for evidence of 
e durable and increasing benefit from this ma- 
ire, have had their eflects almost destroyed, by 
c applications having been made too heavy, 
hcse experiments, like the 4th, and 6th, al- 
ady reported, were designed to remain without 
ly subsequent alteration, so that the measure- 
ent of their products once in every succeeding 
tation, might exhibit the progress of improve- 
lent under all the different circumstances. As 
3 danger was then teared from such a cause, 
.arl was applied heavily, that no future addition 
ight be required: and for this reason, I have to 
iport my greatest disappointments exactly in 
lose cases Vv'here the most evident success and 
creasing benefits had been expected. However, 
lese failures wdl be stated as fully as the most 
iccessful results — and they may at least serve to 
am from the danger, if not to show the greatest 
[•ofits of marling. 

It should be observed that the general rotation 
' crops pursued on the farm, on all land not re- 
mtly cleared, was that of four shifts, (corn, wheat, 
id then the land two years at rest and not grazed,) 
tough some exceptions to this course will be re- 
larked in some of^ the experiments. 

/■Experiment 8. 

Of a poor silicious acid loam, seven acres were 
larled at the rate of only ninety bushels (yVo) to 
le acre: laid on and spread early in 1819, 

Results. 1819. In corn^ — the benefit too small 
> be generally perce])tible, but could be plainly 
istinguished along part ol the outline, by com- 
aring with the part not marled. 

1820. Wheat — something better — and the ef- 
ct continued to be visible on the weeds following, 
Qtil the whole was more heavily marled in 1823. 

Experiment 9. 

In the same field, on soil as poor and more 
mdy than the kust described, four acres were 
larled at one hundred and eighty bushels (fW,) 
larch 1819. A part of the same was also cover- 
1 heavily with rotted barn-yard manure, which 
so extended through similar land not marled, 
his furnished for observation, land marled only — 
lanured only — marled and manured — and some 
ithout either. The whole space, and more ad- 
ining, had been manured five or six years before 
Y summer cow-pens, and stable litter — of which 
3 appearance remained afler two years. 

Results. 1819. In corn. The improvement 
om marl very evident — but not to be distinguish- 
1 on the part covered also by manure, the effect 
" the latter so far exceeding that of the marl. 

1820. In wheat. 1821 and 1822, at rest. 

1823. In corn— 5^ by 3^ feet— The ^ following 
leasurements were made on adjoining 'spaces on 



October lOtli. The shape of the ground did not 
admit of larger pieces, equal in all respects, being 
measured, as no comparison of products bad been 
contemplated at first, otherwise than bv the eye. 

Bush. Qts. 
From the part not marled — 
414 corn-hilis made 7i> quarts— or per acre, 13 
Marled only — 

100 18 

Manured only — 

105 15 

Marled and ma- 
nured — 

130 20 



414 
490 



26 



12 



490 



20 



The growth on the part both mailed and ma- 
nured was evidently inferior to that of 1819: this 
was to be ex])ected, as this small quantity of cal- 
careous earth was not enough to fix half so much 
putrescent manure — and of course, the excess was 
as liable to waste as if no marl had been useci 

Experiment \0. 

Twenty acres of sandy loam, on a sandy sub- 
soil, covered in 1819 with marl of about y'y,v aver- 
age proportion of calcareous earth, and the ba- 
lance silicious sand — at eight hundred bushels to 
the acre. This land had been long cleared, and 
much exhausted by cultivation: since 1813 not 
grazed, and had been in corn only once in four 
years, and as it was not worth sowing in wheat, 
had three years in each rotation to rest and im- 
prove by receiving all its scanty growth of weeds. 
The same course nas been continued since 1819, 
except that wheat has regularly followed the crops 
of corn, leaving two years of rest, in four. This 
soil was lighter than the subject of any preceding 
experiment, except the ninth. On a high level 
part, surrounded by land apparently equal, a 
square of about an acre (A) was staked off, and 
left without marl — which that year's work brought 
to two sides of the square (C and D.) 




Results. 1820. In corn: October 18th, three 
half acres of marled land were measured, and as 
many on that not marled, and close adjoining, and 
produced as follows: — 



44 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



JVbf marled. 

Bush. Peclts. 



Marled. 

Bush. Pecks 



Half acre in A, 7 1 adjoining in C, 12 3 

ThesameinA, 7 1 D, 13 3^ 

Half acre in B, 7 2i- E, 15 0^- 

The average increase being 12| bushels of grain 
to the acre: nearly 100 per cent, as measured, and 
more than 100, if the detective filling, and less 
matured state ol the corn not marled, be consider- 
ed. The whole would have lost more by shrink- 
age than is usual from equal products. 

1821. The whole in wheat — much hurt by the 
wetness of the season. The marled part more 
tlian twice as good as that left out. 

1822 and 1823. At rest. A good cover of carrot 
weeds and other kinds had succeeded the former 
growth of povert}' grass and sorrel, and every ap- 
pearance promised additional increase to the next 
cultivated crop. Nov. 1823, when the next plough- 
ing was commenced, the soil was found to be evi- 
dently deeper, of a darker color, and firmer, yet 
more friable. The two-horse ploughs with diffi- 
culty (increased by the cover of weeds.) could cut 
the required depth of five inches, and the slice 
crumbled as it 1(?11 fi-om the mould-board. But as 
the furrows passed into the part not marled, an im- 
mediate change was seen, and even felt by the 
ploughman, as the cutting was so much more 
easy, that care was necessary to prevent the 
plough running too deep — and the slices turned 
over in flakes, smooth and sleek from the mould- 
board, like land too wet for ploughing, which how- 
ever was not the case. The marling of the field 
was completed, at the same rate, (eight hundred 
bushcla,) which closed a third side (B) of the 



marked square. The fourth side was my neighli 
bors field. 

1824. In corn. The newly marled part showeci 
as early and as great benefit as was found in 182(i(eii 
— but was very interior to the old, until the latte ' 
was ten or twelve inches high, when it began tc toil 
give evidence of the fatal effects of using this ma, <\\ 
nure too heavily. The disease thus produced be 
came worse and worse, until many of the planti; 
had been killed, and still more were so stunted, ai|L 
to leave no hope of their being otherwise thai 
barren. The effects will be known fi-om the mea 
surements, which were made nearly on the same 



]\ 



ground as the corresponding marks in 1820, anc 
will be exhibited in the table, together with th<i 
products of the succeeding rotations. — Besidesth(i|., 
general injury sufiered here in 1824, there wero. 
one hundred and three corn hills in one of th«' 
measured quarter acres (inC) or more than one 
sixth, entirely barren, and eighty-nine corn hills n 
another quarter acre (D.) In counting these* 
none of the missing hills were included, as thesi 
plants might have perished from other causes 
This unlooked for disaster dmiinished the pre* 
vious increase gained by marling, by nearly one( 
half; and the damage has since been still greater; 
at each successive return of cultivation. 

Just before planting the crops of 1832, straw 
and chaff very imperfectly rotted by exposure, anc 
which contained no admixture of animal manure* 
were applied at the rate of 800 bushels the acre tfl, 
half the square without marl (A 1) and to all th<i 
surrounding marled land. The vegetable manurf 
showed but slight benefit, until after all the wors ,. 
effects of excessive marling had been produced.tf 
and the later operation of the manure served bare 
ly to prevent a still farther dirninution being exhi 
bited by the land injured by marl. 



A 

A 1 
B 

C > 

eS 



DESCRIPTIO:X, 



Not marled. 
After manuring, 
Not marled until 1823, 

Marled in 1819 — manured 
chaff &c. in 1832, 



with 



PRODUCT IN SHELLKD CORN, PER ACRE. 



1st course 


2nd course 


3d course 


4th course 


1820 


1824 


1828 


1832 


Oct. 13. 


Oct. 16. 


Oct. 13. 


Oct. 19. 


Bush, pecks. 


Bush, pecks. 


Bush, pecks. 


Bush, pecks. 


14 2 


16 1 


11 3^ 


9 3 
16 3 


15 1 


28 


19 2 


not measured, 


(25 


19 2 


15 


18 


<27 3.^ 


20 


19 


19 i 


^30 1 


not measured. 


not measured. 


not measured. 



The crops of wheat were less injured than the 
corn. 

For the crops of 1828, ploughed with three 
mules to each plough, from six to seven inches 
deep — seldom turning up any subsoil (which was 
formerly within three inches of the surface,) and 
the soil appearing still darker and richer than when 
preparing for the crops of 1824. The ploughing 
of the square not marled (A) no where exceeded 
six inches: yet that depth must have injured the 
land, as I can impute to no other cause the re- 
markable diminution of product, through four 
courses of the mild four-shift rotation. It was 
evident that a still greater depth of furrow was not 
hurtfid to the marled land. A strip across the 
field in another place, was in 1828 ploughed eight 
inches deep for experiment, by the side of another 
of four inches, and the corn on the deepest plough- 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



45 



M 



il caused by the excess of marl. But another 
rtion of the field, marled as heavily in 1824, and 
here equal damage was expected to ensue, has 
en entirely relieved by intermitting the corn crop 
'"'J 1823, sowing clover, which (by using trypsum) 
oduced well, and which was left to lull and rot 
I the land. The next growth of corn (1832) was 
from disease, and though irregular, seemed to 
e eye to amount to full twenty-five bushels to the 



jExperiment 11. 



The ground on which this experiment was 
ade, wiis in the midst of nineteen or twenty 
res of soil apparently similar in all respects — 
vel, gray sandy loam, cleared about thirty years 
(]j ;fbre, and reduced as low by cultivation as such 
il could well be. The land that was marled and 
easured was about two hundred yards distant 
3m Experiment 2, and both places are supposed 
have been originally similar in all respects, 
his land had not been cultivated since 1815, when 
was in corn — but had been once ploughed since, 
Nov. 1817, which had prevented broom grass 
3m taking possession. The ploughing then was 
ur inches deep, and in five and a half feet beds, 
! recommended in Arcitor. The growth in the 
;ar 1820, presented but little except poverty grass, 
mning blackberry, and sorrel — and the land 
emed very little if at all improved by its five suc- 
;ssive years of rest, A small part of this land 
as covered with calcareous sand ^%t, — quantity 
3t observed particularly, but probably about six 
undred bushels. 




Results. 1821— Ploughed level, and planted in 
orn— distance 5^ by ^ feet. The measurement 
f spaces nearly adjoining, made in October, was 
s follows: 

3 by 25 corn hills, not marled, (A) 1 

made 2| bushels, or per I very 
. , ficre, - - - 8f [ nearly. 

|3 by 23 corn hills, marled, (B) 5f 22^ J 

1822. At rest. Marled the whole, except a 
narked square of fifty yards, containing the space 
measured the preceding 3'ear. Marl f ^^ and fine- 
Y divided— three hundred and fitly bushels to the 
.ere— from the same bed as that used for Experi- 
ment 4. In August, ploughed the land, and sow- 
d wheat early in October. 

1823. Much injury sustained by the wheat from 
lessian fly, and the growth was not only mean, 
ut very irregular— but it was supposed "that the 
rst marled place was from fifty to one hundred per 



cent, better than the last, and theHast superior to 
the included square not marled, in'as great a pro- 
portion. 

1824. Again in corn. The effects of disease 
from marling were as injurious here, both on the 
new and old part, as those described in Experiment 
10. No measurement of products made, owing 
to my absence when the corn was cut down for sow- 
ing wheat. 

1825. The injury from disease less on the wheat 
than on the corn of the last year on the latest 
marling, and none perceptible on the oldest appli- 
cation. This scourging rotation of three grain 
crops in four years, was particularly improper on 
marled land, and the more so on account of its po- 
verty. 

1826. While clover had been sown thickly over 
forty-five acres, including this part, on the wheat, 
in January 1825. In the spring of 1826, it form- 
ed a beautiful green though low cover to even the 
poorest of the marled land. Marked spots, which 
were so diseased by over-marling, as not to pro- 
duce a gi'ain of corn or wheat, produced clover at 
least as good as other places not injured by that 
cause. The square, which had been sowed in the 
same manner, and on which the plants came up 
well, had none remaining by April 1826, except 
on a few small spots, all of which together would 
not have made three feet square. The piece not 
marled, white with poverty grass, might be seen, 
and its outlines traced at some distance by its 
strong con* rast with the surrounding dark weeds 
in winter, or the verdant turf of white clover the 
spring before. 

1827. Still at rest. No grazing allowed on the 
white clover. 

1828. In corn — the land broken in January, five 
inches deep. October 14th made the ibilowing 
measurements. 

In the square not marled 105 by 1041 ^eet (thir- 
ty-six square yards more than a quarter of an 
acre,) made one barrel of ears — or of grain, to 
the acre. 

Bush, pecks. 
9 1| 
The same in 1821, 8 li 

Gain, 1 Qi 



Bush, pecks. 
Old marling— 105 by 104i feet— 2i 

barrels, 22 2 

The same in 1821, 22 0^ 



Gain, 



li 



New marling, 105 by 104i feet, on the side that 
seemed to be the most diseased, (D) 1| barrels — 
or nearly twelve bushels to the acre. 

18.32. Again in corn. Since 1826, the four-shifl 
rotation had been regularly adhered to. Plough- 
ed early in winter five inches deep, and again with 
two-horse ploughs just before planting, and after 
manuring the land above the dotted line D x. 
Tlie manure was from the stable yard, the vegeta- 
ble part of it composed of straw, corn-stalks, 
corn-cobs, and leaves raked from woodland — had 
been heaped in a wet state a short time before, and 
was still hot from its fermentation when carrying 
to the field. It was then about half rotted. The 



46 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



rale at which it was applied was about 807 heaped 
hiisliels to the acpe, whicli was much too heavy 
for profit. Tlie corn on the oldest marling (B) 
showed scarcely a trace of remaining damage, 
while that on 1)2 was again much injured. On 
the manured part of D, and C, the symptoms of 



disease began also to show early — but were si * 
soon checked by the operation of" the putrescen e'l 
manure, that very little (if any) loss could havfiia'* 
been sustained from that cause. The followinj'lit 
table exhibits all the measured products for con|' te 
parison. :iJ 

(•to 

PRODUCT IN GEAIN PER ACRE. '•''' 



B 
D 
D 1 



DESCRIPTION. 



C Not marled, 

I Manured in 18.32, 

Marled in 1822 and manured ) 
in 1832, 5 

Marled in 1821, 
Marled in 1822, 
The same — &, manured in 1832 



1st course 

1821 

Oct.— 



Bush. 
8 



peck 

n 



2nd course 
1824 



None measured, 
but the product of 
B much reduced 
liy excess cf marl, 
indDand Cequal- 
y injured from the 
;"ame cause. 



od course 

1828 
Oct. 11. 



Bush, pecks, 
9 1| 

the same 



22 2 

12 

the same 



4th course 

1832 

Oct. 20. 



Bush, pecks 
9 24) 



The products of the spaces A and B, in 1828, 
were not only estimated as usual from the mea- 
surement of the corn in ears, (which estimated 
quantities are those in the table,) but they were 
also shelled on the day when gathered, and the 
grain then measured, and again some months after, 
Avhen it had become thoroughly dry. Care was 
taken that there should be no waste of the corn, 
or other cause of inaccuracy. The result shows 
nearly double the loss from shrinking in the corn 
not marled, and of coarse a proportional gain in 
that marled, besides the increase which appears 
from the early measurement exhibited in the table. 
The grain of A, not marled, when first shelled, 
measured a very little more than the quantity fixed 
by estimate, and lost by shrinking 30 per cent. 
The marled grain, from 13, measured at first above 
four per cent, more than the estimate — and alter 
shrinking, fell below it so much as to show the loss 
to be 16 per cent. 

The loss from slirinking in this case was more 
than usual, from the poverty and consequent back- 
wardness of the part not marled, and the uncom- 
monly large proportion of replanted corn on the 
whole. 

The two last experiments, as well as the 4th, 
were especially designed to test the amount of in- 
creased product to be obtained from marling, and 
to show the regular addition to the first increase, 
Vv'hich the theory promised at each renewal of 
tillage. As to the main objects, all the three ex- 
periments have proved fiiilures — and from the 
same error of marling too heavily. Although for 
this reason, the resuUs have shown so much of 
the injurious efiects, still, taken altogether, the ex- 
periments prove clearly, not only the great imme- 
diate benefit of applying marl, but also its con- 
tinued and increasing good effects, when applied 
in proper quantities. 

Experiment 12. 

On nine acres of sandy loam, marled in 1819 at 
four hundred bushels (flo) nearly an acre was 
manured during the same summer, by penning 
cattle: with the expectation of preserving the ma- 
nure, double the quantity of marl, eight hundred 
bushels in all, was laid on that part. The field 
in corn in 1820— in wheat, 1821— and at rest 1822 
and 1823. 



Results. 1824. In corn, the second rotation afterp 
marling. The efi^ects of the dung has not much; 
diminished, and that part shows no damage from 
the quantity of marl, though the surrounding comma 
marled only half astliickly, gave signs of generaltro 
though very slight injury from tjjat cause 

Experiment 13. 

Nearly two acres of loamy sand, was covcrecim 
with farm-yard manure, and marl (f^n) at theim 
same time, in the sjiring of 1822, and tended injf 
corn the same year, followed by wheat. Thejii 
quantity of marl not remembered — but it must 
have been heavy (say not less than six hundredit 
bushels to the acre) as it was put on to fix and re 
tain the manure, and I had then no fear of da-tjjui 
mage from heavy dressings. 

Bcsult. 1825. Again in corn — and except on 
small spot of sand almost pure, no signs of 
from over-marling. 



CHAPTER XII. 



EFFECTS OF CALCAREOUS MANURES ON "FR 
LIGHT LAND." 

Experiment 14. 

The soil known in this part of the country by 
the name of "fi-ee light land" has so peculiar a 
character, that it deserves a particular notice. It 
belongs to the slopes and waving lands, between 
the ridges and the watercourses, but has nothing 
of the "durability which slopes of medium fertility 
sometimes possess. In its woodland state it would 
be called rich, and may remain productive for a 
few crops after clearing — but it is rapidly exhaust- 
ed, and Avhen poor, seems as unimprovable by 
vegetable manures as the poorest ridge lands. In 
its virgin state, this soilmight be supposed to de- 
serve the name of neutral — but its productive 
power is so fleeting, and acid growths and qualities 
so surely follow its' exhaustion, that it must be in- 
ferred that it is truly an acid soil. 

The subject of this experiment presents soil of 
this kind with its peculiar characters unusually 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



47 



ill marked. It is a loamy siandy soil (the sand 
arse) on a similar subsoil of considerable depth, 
fe surface wavinj^ — almost hillj^ in some parts. 
id original growth principally red oak, hickory, 
d dogwood — not many pines, and very little 
lortlebcrry. Cut down in 1816 and put in corn 
5 next year. The crop was supposed to be 
enty-five bushels to the acre. Wheat succeed- 
, and was still a better crop for so sandy a soil — 
iking twelve to fifteen bushels, as it appeared 
mding. After a year of rest, and not grazed, 
next corn crop of 1820, was evidently consi- 
rably inferior to the first — and the wheat of 1821, 
^hich however was a veiy bad crop from too wet 
season) could not have been more than five 
shels to the acre. In January 1820, a piece of 
acres was limed, at one himdred bushels the 
re. The lime being caught by rain before it was 
read, formed small lumps of mortar on the land, 
d produced no benefit on the corn of that year, 
t could be seen slightly in the wheat of 1821. 
lie land again at rest in 1822 and 23, when it 
as marled, at six hundred bushels, (f^rr) without 
flitting the limed piece — and all sowed in wheat 
at tall. In 1824, the wheat was found to be im- 
oved by the marl, but neither that, nor the next 
' 1828, was equal to its earliest p^-od act of wheat, 
he limed part showed injury from the quantity of 
anure in 1824, but none since. The field was 
)W under the regular four-shift rotation, and con- 
lued to recover — but did not surpass its first crop 
itil 1831, when it brought rather more than thir- 
bushels of corn to the acre — being five or six 
ore than its supposed first crop. 
Adjoining this piece, six acres of similar soil 
ere grubbed and belted in August 1826 — marl at 
X hundred to seven hundred bushels (jj^o) spread 
st before. But lew oi the trees died until the 
immer of 1827. 1828, planted in corn: the crop 
'd not appear heavier than would have been ex- 
acted if no marl liad been applied — but no ))art 
ad been left without, for comparison. 1829 — 
'heat. 1830, at rest. 1831, in corn, and the pro- 
uct supposed to be near or quite thirty-five bush- 
is — or an increase of thirty-five or forty per cent. 
11 the first crop. No measurement was made — 
utthe product was estimated by comparison with 
n adjacent piece, which measured thirty-one 
ushels, and which seemed to be inferior to this 
iece. 

The operation of marl on this kind of soil, 
3ems to add to the previous product very slowly, 
pmpared with other soils — but it is not the less 
ffectual and profitable, in fixing and retaining the 
egetable matter accumulated by nature, which 
therwise would be quickly dissipated by cultiva- 
ion, and lost forever. 

The remarkable open texture of the soil on 
vhich the last two experiments were tried will be 
evident from the following statement of the quan- 
ity and coarseness of the silicious sand contained. 

lOOO grains of this soil, taken in 1826 fi-om the 
! part that had been both limed and marled, 

was found to consist of 
f 811 of silicious sand moderately coarse, mixed 
' with a few grains of coarse shelly matter. 
' 158 — finely divided earthy matter, &c. 
, 31~loss. 

loco 



At the same time, fi-om the edge of the adjoin- 
ing woodland which formed the next described 
clearing, and which had not then been marled, a 
specimen of soil was taken from between the 
depths of one and three inches — and found to con- 
sist of the following proportions. This spot was 
believed to be rather lighter than the other in its 
natural state. 
865 grains of silicious sand, principally coarse — 
107 — finely divided earthy matter, &c. 
28— loss. 

1000 



CHAPTER XIII. 

EFFECTS OF CALCAREOUS MANURES OA EX- 
HAUSTED ACID SOILS, UNDER THEIR SE- 
COND GROWTH OF TREES. 

Proposition 5. Continued. 

Not having owned much land under a second 
growth of pines, I can only refer to tAvo experi- 
ments of this kind. The improvement in both 
these cases has been so remarkable, as to induce 
the behef that the old fields to be found on every 
farm, which have been exhausted and turned out 
of cultivation thirty or forty years, ollijr the most 
profitable subjects for the a])plication of calcareous 
manures. 

Experiment 15. 

May 1826. Marled about eight acres of land 
under its second growth, by opening paths for the 
carts, ten yards apart. Marl j^^\, put five hundred 
to six hundred bushels to the acre — and spread in 
the course of the summer. In August, belted 
slightly all the pines that were as much as eight 
inches through, and cut down or grubbed the smaller 
growth, of which there was very little. The 
pines (which were the only trees,) stood thick, 
and were mostly from eight to twelve inches in di- 
ameter — eighteen inches where standing thin. 
The land joined Exp. 14 on one side — but this is 
level, and on the other side joins ridge woodland, 
which soon becomes like the soil of Exj). 1. This 
piece, in its virgin state, was probably of a nature 
between those two soils — but more like the ridge 
soil, than the "free light land." No information 
has been obtained as to the state of this land when 
its former cultivation was abandoned. The soil, 
(that is, the depth Avhich has since been turned by 
the plough,) a whitish loamy sand, on a subsoil of 
the same: in fact, all was subsoil before ploughing, 
except half an inch or three quarters, on the top, 
Avhicli was principally composed of rotted pine 
leaves. Above this thin layer, were the later 
dropped and unrotted leaves, lying loosely several 
inches thick. 

The pines showed no symptom of being killed, 
until the autumn of 1827, when their leaves began 
to have a tinge of yellow. To suit the cultivation 
; with the surrounding land, this piece was laid 
j down in wheat for its first crop, in October 1827. 
I For this purpose the iew logs, the boughs, and 
1 grubbed bushes were heaped,' but not burnt — the 



48 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



grain sowed on the coat of pine leaves, and 
ploughed in by two-horse plouglis, in as slovenly 
a manner as may be supposed from the condition 
of the land — and a wooden-tooth harrow then 
passed over, to pull down the heaps of leaves, and 
roughest furrows. 

Results. The wlieat was thin, but otherAvise 
looked well while young. The surface was again 
soon covered by the leaves dropping from the 
now dying trees. On April 2d 1828, most of the 
trees were nearly dead, though but lew of them 
entirely. The wheat was then taller than any in 
my crop — -and when ripe, was a surprising growth 
for such land, and such tillage. 

1829 and 1830. At rest. Late in the spring of 
1830 an accidental fire passed over the land — -but 
the then growing vegetation prevented all of the 
older cover being burnt, though some was destroy- 
ed every where. 

1831. In corn. The growth excited the admi- 
ration of all who saw it, and no one estimated the 
product so low as it actually proved to be. A 
square of four (two pole) chains, or four-tenths of 
an acre, measured on November 25th, yielded at 
the rate of thirty-one and three-eighths bushels of 
grain to the acre. 



Experiment 16. 

In a field of acid sandy loam, long under the 
usual cultivation, a piece of five or six acres was 
covered by a second growth of pines thirty-nine 
years old, as supposed from that number of rings 
being counted on some of the stumps. The 
largest trees were eighteen or twenty inches 
through. This ground was altogether on the side 
of a slope, steep enough to lose sod by washing, 
and more than one old shallow guUey remained to 
confirm the belief of the injury that had been for- 
merly sustained from that cause. These circum- 
stances, added to all the surroundmg land having 
been continued under cultivation, made it evident 
that this piece had been turned out of cultivation 
because greatly injured by tillage. It was again 
cut down in the winter of 1824-5 — many of the 
trees furnished fence rails, and fuel — and the re- 
maining bodies were heaped and burnt some 
months after, as well as the lai-ge brush. In Au- 
gust it was marled, supposed at six hundred busb- 
y's (xi o) — twice coultered in August and Septem- 
ber, and sowed in wheat — the seed covered by trow- 
el ploughs. The leaves and much of the smaller 
brush left on the ground, made the jtloughing trou- 
blesome and imperfect. The crop (1826) was re- 
markably good — and still better were the crops of 
corn and wheat in the ensuing rotation, afler two 
years of rest. On the last crop of wheat (1830) 
clover was sowed — and mowed for hay in 1831. 
The growth stood about eighteen inches high, 
and never have I seen so heavy a crop on sandy 
and acid soil, even from the heaviest dunging, the 
utmost care, and the most favorable season. The 
clover grew well in the bottoms of the old gullies, 
which are still plainly to be seen, and wliich no 
means had been used to improve, except such as all 
the land had received. Within two feet of the sur- 
face the subsoil of this land is of clay, which pro- 
bably helped its growth of clover. 



CHAPTER XIV. 1 J 

1 

EFFECTS OF CALCAREOtJS BlANURES AI.ONifj! 
OR WITH GYPSU3I, ON NEUTRAL SOILS. ** 

Proposition 5. Continued. 

Applications of calcareous earth alone, to cH'"' 
careous soils, are so mamlestly useless, that on! 
two experiments of that kind have been made 
neither of which has had any improving etiecf" 
that could be observed, in the twelve years thaf ' 
have since elapsed. r 

When calcareous manures have been applied t|'' 
neutral soils, whether ne\v or worn, no perceptibltp 
benefit has been obtained on the earliest cropgr ' 
The sub.gequent improvement has gradually ini''" 
creased as would be expected from the power o'" 
fixing manures, attributed to calcareous earth. Bui™ 
however satisflictoiy these general results are t'''' 
myself^ they are not such as could be reported ii!"' 
detail, with any advantage to other persons. It ij'P' 
sufficiently difficult to make ttiir and accurate ex? " 
periments, where early and remarkable results anr' 
expected. But no cultivator of a farm can bestov'" 
enough care and patient observation, to obtaiir'"' 
true results from experiments that scarcely will''" 
show their first feeble effects in several j-cai's aftc< 
the commencement. On a mere experimenta; 
farm, such things may be possible— but not when 
the main object of the fanner is profit from hii 
general and varied operations. The effects o' 
changes of season, of crops, of the mode of till ag(*? 
— the auxiliary effects of other manures — anti'' 
many other circumstemces, would serve to defea; 
any observations of the progress of a slow im- ,. 
provement, though the ultimate result of the genr 
eral practice might be abundantly evident. 

Another cause of being unable to state with anV 
precision the practical benefit of marling neutra. 
soils, arises from the circumstance that nearly at 
the calcareous manure thus applied, has been ac- J 
companied by a natural admixture of gypsum: ano 
though I feel confident in ascribing some etlects tc 
one, and some to the other of these two kinds o; 
manure, yet this division of operation must resi 
merely on opinion, and cannot be received as cer- 
tain, by any other than him who makes and care- 
fully observes the experiments. Some of these; 
applications will be described, that other persons 
may draw their own conclusions from them. 

The cause of these manures being applied in ? 
conjunction was this. A singular bed of marl ly-^ 
ing under Coggin's Point, and tJie only one withim 
a convenient distance to most of the neutral soil,' 
contains a very small proportion (perhaps about 
one per cent.) of gypsum, scattered irregularly^ 
through the mass, seldom visible, though some-, 
times to be met with in small crystals. The cal- 
careous ingredient is generally about ff ^ — some- 
times f2^. If this manure had been used before', 
its gypseous quality was discovered, all its effects i 
would have been ascribed to calcareous earth alone, 
and the most erroneous opinions might thence- 
have been formed of its mode of operation. 

What led me to suspect the presence of gj'psum 
in this bed of fossil shells, was the circumstance 
that throughout its whole extent of near a mile j 
along the river bank, tliisbed hes on another earth, , 
of peculiar character and appearance, and which, i 
in many places, exhibits gypsum in crystals of 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



49 



rious sizes. This earth has evidently once been 
)ed oi' tbssil shells, like what still remains above 
[)ut nothing now is leil of the shells, except nu- 
Tous impressions of their forms. Not the 
allcst proportion of calcareous earth can be 
ind — and the gypsum into which it must have 
3n changed (by meeting with suliiliuric acid, or 
phuret oi" iron,) has also disappeared in most 
ices; and in others, remains only in small quan- 
es — say from the smallest ])erceptib!e proportion, 
fifteen or twent}' per cent, of the mixed mass, 
some rare cases, this gypseous earth is suffi- 
ntiy abundant to be used profitably as manure, 
has been done, by Mr. Thomas Cocke of Tar- 
y, as well as myself. It is found in the great- 
quantity, and also the richest in gypsvim, at 
^ergrecn, two miles below City Point. There 
; gypsum frequently forms large crystals of va- 
d and beautilul forms. The distance that this 
1 of gypseous earth extends is about seven miles, 
errapted only by some bodies of lower land, 
parently of a more recent fbrraaiion by alluvion. 
1 the bed of gypseous marl above described, there 
s regular layers of a calcareous rock, which was 
I hr.rd to use profitably for manin-e, and which 
ased the greatest impediment to obtainmg the 
"ter part. This rock contains between eighty- 
e and ninety per cent, of pure calcareous earth, 
3id3s a little gypsum and iron. It makes excel- 
it lime for cement, mixed with twice its bulk of 
id — and has been used for part of the brick- 
>rk, and all the plastering of my prv'^sont dwell- 
r house, and for several of my neighbors' houses. 
13 whole body of marl also contains a minute 
jportion of some soluble saUs, which possibly 
ly have some influence on the operation of the 
bstance, as manure, or cement. 
Thus, irom the examination of a single body of 
ivl, there have been obtained not onl\-^a richcal- 
reoas manure, but also gypsum, and a valuable 
ment. Similar formations may perhaps be abun- 
nt el^e.vhere, and their value unsuspected, and 
ely to remain useless. This particular body of 
irl has no outward appearance of possessing 
en its calcareous character. It would be consider- 
, on slight observation, as a mass of gritty cla}', 
no worth whatever. [Appendix 11.] 
This gypseous marl has been used on fiHy-six 
res, most of which was neutral soil — andgener- 
y, if not universally, with early as well as per- 
\nent benefits. The following experiments show 
suits more striking than have been usually' ob- 
ned, but all agree in their general character. 

Experiment 17. 

1819. Across the shelly island numbered 3, in 
e examinations of soils, (page 19,) but where the 
id was less calcareous, a strip of three quarters 
an acre was covered with muscle-shell marl, 
inching this through its whole length, another 
'ip was covered with gypseous marl, (fW) at 
'e rate of two hundred and fifty bushels, 
Jiesults. 1819. In corn. No "perceptible effect 
im the muscle shells. The gy|)seous marling 
nsiderablv better than on either side of it. 
■1829. Wheat— less difference. 
■1821. Grazed. Natural growth of white clover 
;ickly set on the gvjjseous marling, much thinner 
L the muscle-shells, and still less of it where no 
arl had been applied. 
I 7 



The whole field alleiwards was put in wheat 
on summer iallow every second year, and grazed 
the intervening year — a course very unliivorable 
lor observing, or permitting to lake j;lacc, any cl- 
tects of gypsum. Nothing more was noted of this 
experiment until 1825, when cattle were not turned 
in until the clover reached its full size. The strip 
coveied with gypseous mail showed a remarkable 
superiority over the other marled piece, as well as 
the land which was still more calcareous by na- 
ture, and which had produced better in 1820. In 
several places, the white clover stood thickly a 
foot in height. 

Experiment 18. 

A strip of a quarter acre passing through rich 
black neutral loam, covered with gypseous marl at 
tw^o hundred and fifty bushels. 

Results. 1818. In corn. By July, the marled 
part seemed the best by fifty per cent., but after- 
wards the other land gained on it, and little or no 
difference was apparent, when the crop was ma- 
tured. 

1819. Wheat — no difference. 

1820 and 1821. At rest. In the last summer 
the marled strip could again be easily traced, by 
the entire absence of sorrel, (which had been 
gradually increasing on this land since it had been 
secured from grazing,) and still more by its very 
luxuriant growth of bird-foot clover, which was 
t hrice as good as that on the adjoining ground. 

Experiment 19. 

1822. On a body of neutral soil which had been 
reduced quite lovv, but was well manured in 1819 
when last cultivated, gypseous marl was spread on 
nine acres, at the rate of three hundred bushels. 
This terminated on one side at a strip of muscle- 
shell marl ten yards wide — its rate not remem- 
bered, but it was certainly thicker in proportion to 
the calcareous earth contained, than the other, 
which I always avoided laying on heavily, for fear 
of causing injury by loo much g3-pEum. The 
line of division between the two marls, was 
through a clay loam. The subsoil was a retentive 
clay, which caused the rain water to keep the land 
very wet through the winter, and eariy part of 
spring. 

Results. 1822. In corn, followed by wheat in 
1823: not particularly noticed — biit the benefits 
must have been very inconsiderable. All tlie 
muscle-shell marling, and four acres of the gyp- 
seous, sowed in red clover, which stood well, but 
was severely checked, and much of it killed, by a 
drought in June, when the sheltering wheat v/as 
reaped. During the next winter (by neglect) my 
horses had frequent access to this piece, and by 
their trampling in its wet state, must have injured 
both land and clover. From these disastens the 
clover recovered surprisingly; and in 1824, two 
mowings were obtained, vrhicli thongh not hea-vy, 
were better than Ironj any of my pre\ious attempts 
to raise this grass. In 1825, the growth was still bet- 
ter, and yielded more to the scythe. This was the 
first time that I had seen clover worth mowing on 
the third year after sowing' — and had never lieard 
of its being comparable to the second year's growth 
fmy where in the lower country. The growth on 
the muscle-shell marling was very inferior to the 



50 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



other, and was not mowed at all the last year, 
being thin and low, and almost eaten out by wire 
grass. 

1823. In corn — and it was remarkable that the 
diiicrence shown the last year was reversed, the 
muscle-shell marling now having much the best 
crop. 

In these and other applications to neutral soils, I 
ascribe the earliest etiects entirely to gypsum, as 
well as tiie peculiar benefit shown to clover, 
throughout. The later effects on grain, are due 
to the calcareous earth in the manure. 

Another opinion was formed from the eflects of 
gypseous marl, which may lead to profits nnich 
niore important than any to be derived ii-oin the 
limited use of this, or any similar mineral com- 
pound — viz: that gypsum may be profitably used 
after calcareous manures, on. soils on which it loas 
totally inefficient before. I do not present this as 
an established fact, of universal application— lor 
tile results of some of my own experiments are 
directly in opposition. But however it may be oj)- 
posed by some facts, the greater weight of evidence 
furnislred by my experiments and observations, 
decidedly supports tliis opinion. If correct, its 
importance to our low country is inferior only to 
the value of calcareous manures — which value, 
may be almost doubled, if the land is thereby fit- 
ted to receive the wonderful benefits of gypsum and 
clover. 

It is well known that gj^psum has failed entirely 
as a manure on nearly all the land on which it has 
been tried in the tide-water district — and we may 
learn from various publications, that as little gen- 
eral success has been met with along the Atlantic 
coast, as far north as Long Island. To account for 
this general failure of a manure so efficacious else- 
where, some one offered a reason, which was re- 
ceived without examination, and which is still con- 
sidered by many as sufficient, viz. that the influ- 
ence of salt vapors destroyed the power of gypsum 
on and near the sea coast. But the same general 
wort.hlessness of that manure extends one hundred 
miles higher than the salt water of the rivers — and 
the lands where it is profitably used, are much 
more exposed to sea air. Such are the rich neu- 
tral soils of Curie's Neck, Shirley, Berkley, Bran- 
don, and Sandy Point on James River, on all 
which gypsum on clover has been extensively and 
profita,bly used. On acid soils, I have never heard 
■of enough benefit being obtained from gypsum to 
induce the cultivator to extend its use further than 
making a few small experiments. When any ef- 
fljct has been produced on an acid soil, (so far as 
instructed by rny own ex perience, or the infor- 
mation of others,) it has been caused by applying 
to small spaces, comparatively large quantities — 
and even tiien, the efieets were neither considera- 
ble, durable nor profitable. Such have been the 
results of many small experiments made on my 
own acid soils- — and very rarely was the least per- 
ceptible eflect produced. Yet on some of the same 
soils, after marling, the most evident benefits have 
been obtained from gypsum on clover. The soils 
on which the 1st and 10th experiments were made, 
(at some distance from the measurements,) had 
both been tried with gypsum, and at different 
rates of thickness, before marling, without the least 
eflect. Several years after both had been marled, 
gypseous earth (from the bed describled pp. 48, 49,) 
was spread at twenty bushels the acre, (which 



gave four bushels of pure gypsum,) on clover, ant 
produced in some parts, a growth I have nevei 
seen surpassed. It is jiroper to state that such re' 
suits have been produced only by heavy dressings 
Mr. Thomas Cocke of Tarbay has this last spring 
(1831) sowed nearly four tons of Nova Scotii 
gypsum on clover on marled land, a continuatioi 
of the same ridge that my 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th ex 
periments were made on, and very similar soilj 
His dressing, at a bushel to the acre, before thl 
summer had passed, produced evident benefit! 
where it is absolutely certain that none could hav'i 
been obtained before marling. 

On soils naturally calcareous, I have in somi 
experiments greatly promoted the growth of corr 
by gypsum, and have doubled the growth of cloi 
ver on my l)est land of tliat kind. When the maii 
containing gypsum was applied, benefit from thai 
ingredient was almost certain to be obtained. 

All these facts, if presented alone, would seem 
to prove clearly the correctness of" the opinion 
that the acidity of our soils caused the inefficac ■ 
of gypsum, and that the application of calcareoui! 
earth, which will remove the former, will als; 
serve to bring the latter into useful operation 
But this most desirable conclusion is opposed bl 
the results of other experiments, which thoug] 
fewer in number, are as strong as any of the fact 
that favor that conclusion. If the subject wa; 
properly investigated, those facts, apparently 
op|)osition, might be explained so as no longer t 
contradict this opinion — perhaps even help to con 
firm it. Good reasons, deduced from establishei 
chemical truths, may be offered to explain whl! 
the acidity of our soils should prevent the operr 
tion of gypsum: but it may be deemed prematur 
to attempt the explanation of any supposed faci 
before every doubt of its existence has been finr 
removed. This subject well deserves a more flu 
investigation ir-om those who can be aided by mo) 
information, whether practical or scientific. [Aj 
pendix I.] 

One of the circumstances will be mentioner 
which appears most strongly opposed to the opir 
ion which has been advanced. On the poor aci 
clay soil, of" such peculiar and base qualitiCi 
which forms the subject of the 5th, 6th, and 7t 
experiments, gypsum has been sufficiently trie( 
and has produced not the least benefit, either b<> 
fore marling, or afterwards. Yet the growth i 
clover on this land after marling, is fully equal i 
what might be expected from the best operation < 
gypsum. Now if it could be ascertained that a vei 
small proportion of either sulphuric acid, or of tf 
sulphate of iron exists in this soil, it would con 
pletely explain away this opposing fact, and mal 
it the strongest support of my position. The su 
phate of iron has sometimes been found in arab 
soil,* and sulphuric acid has been detected in ce 
tain clays. t I have seen, on the same farm, 
clay of very similar appearance to this soil, wliii 
had once contained one of these substances, ; 
was proved by the formation of crystallized su 
phate of lime, where the clay came in conta^ 
with calcareous earth'. The sulphate of lime w; 
found in the small fissures of the clay, extendin ■ 
sometimes one or two feet distant from the calc; 
reous earth below. Precisely the same chemic: 



■Ag. Chem. p 111. 



fKirwan on Manin-es. 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



51 



hange would take place in a soil containing sul- 
iiuric acid, or suipliate ol' iron, as soon as marl 
vas applied. The sulphuric acid, (whether tree 
r combined with iron) would immediately unite 
vith the lime presented, and form gypsum, (sul- 
hate of lime.) Proportions ot" these substances 
|00 small perhaps to be detected by analysis, 
vould be sufficient to form three or four bushels of 
fypsiun to the acre — more than enough to pro- 
luce the greatest efTect on clover — and to prevent 
my benefit being derived from a subsequent ap- 
jlication of gypsum. 

Since the publication of the foregoing part ol" 
his chapter, in the first edition, my use of gypsum, 
in land formerly acid, has been more cxfeinlrd, 
luul the results have been such as to gi\<^ iiddiiioii- 
d confidence in the practice, and, indeed, an as- 
lurance of good profit, on the average of such ap- 
)]ications. But still, as betiDro, disappointments 
either total or nearly so, in the eflect of such ap- 
plications, have sometimes occurred, and without 
here being any apparent cause to which to at- 
ribute such disappointment in the results. 

In 1832, nine acres of the same body of ridge 
and above referred to, adjoining the piece on 
vhich the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th experiments were 
nade, and more lately cleared, were sowed in clo- 
rer in the early part of 1831, on wheat. The 
next spring, French plaster was sowed at the rate 
)f a bushel to the acre, except on four marked ad- 
oining squares, each about one-third of an acre, 
me of which was left without plaster, and the 
)thers received it at the several rates of 2, 3, and 
f bushels to the acre. The whole brought a mid- 
iling crop, and was mowed for hay, except the 
square left without gypsum, which did not pro- 
luce more than half as much as the adjoining 
and where gypsum was applied at one bushel the 
icre. The product of the other pieces was slight- 
\y increased by each addition to the gypsum, but 
)y no means in proportion to the increased quan- 
ity used: nor was the effect of the lour bushels 
lear equal to that formerly obtained, in several 
|ases, fi-om 20 bushels of gypseous earth taken 

Irom the river bank. Hence it seems, that it was 
lot merely the unusual quantity of gypsum appli- 
id in this earth, which produced such remarkable 
i)enefit; and we must infer that it contains some 
)ther quality or ingredient capable of giving addi- 
tional improvement to clover. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE DAMAGE CAUSED BY CALCAREOUS MA- 
NURE, APfD ITS RE3IEDIE3. 

Proposition 5. Continued. 

The injury or disease in grain crops produced 
jy marling has so lately been presented to our no- 
ice, that the collection and comparison of many 
idditional facts will be required before its cause 
;an be satisfactorily explained. But the facts al- 
•eady ascertained will show how to avoid the dan- 
ger in future, and to find remedies for the evils 
il ready inflicted by the injudicious use of calca- 
■eous manures. 

The earliest effect of this kind observed, was in 



May 1834, on the field containing experiment 10. 
The corn on the land maried four years belbre, 
sprang up and grew with all the vigor and luxu- 
riance that was expected from the appearance of 
mcreased fertility exhibited by the soil, as before 
described, (page 44.) About the 20th of May 
the change commenced, and the worst symptoms 
of the disease were seen by the 11th of June. 
From having as deep a color as young corn shows 
on the richest soils, it became of a pale sickly green. 
The leaves, when closely examined, seemed al- 
most tra'isparent — aflerwards were marked through 
theirwhole length by streaks of rusty red, separated 
very regularly by what was then more of yellow 
than green — and next they began to shrivel, and 
die <lown wards from their extremities. The growth 
of many of tlie plants was nearly stopped- Still 
some few showed no sign of injury, and maintain- 
ed the vigorous growth" which they began with, 
so as by contrast more strongly to mark" the gen- 
eral loss sustained. The appearance of the 'field 
was such, that a stranger would have supposed 
that he saw the crop of a rich soil exposed to the 
worst ravages of some destructive kind of insect: 
but neither on the roots or (Stalks of the corn could 
any thing be found to support that opinion. Be- 
fore the 1st of August, this gloomy prospect had 
improved. Most of the plants seemed to have 
been relieved ol" the infliction, and to grow again 
with renewed vigor. But before that "time, manv 
were dead, and it was impossible that the others 
could so fully recover as to produce any thing ap- 
proaching a full crop for the land. It has "been 
shown in the report of the products of Exp. 10, 
what diminution of crop was then sustained — and 
that the evil was not abated by the next cultiva- 
tion. Still, neither of the diseased measured 
pieces has fallen as low as to its product before 
marling— nor do I think that such has been the 
result on any one acre on my iarrn, though many 
smaller spots have been renilered incapable of 
yielding a grain of corn or wheat. 

The injury caused to wheat by mariing is not so 
easy to describe, though abundantly evident to the 
observer. Its eariiest growth, like that of com, 
is not affected. About the time for heading, the 
plants most diseased appear as if they were scorch- 
ed, and when ripe, will be found veiy deficient in 
grain. On very poor spots, from which nearly alt 
the soil has been washed, sometimes filty heads of 
wheat taken together would not furnish as many 
grains of" wheat. This crop, however, suff'ers less 
than corn on the same land — perhaps because its 
growth is neariy completed by the time that the 
warm season begins, to which the ill effects of cal- 
careous manures seem confined. 

When these unpleasant discoveries were first 
made, two hundred and fifty acres had already 
been maried so heavily, that the same evil was to 
be expected to visit the whole. My labors thus 
bestowed lor years had been greatly and unneces- 
sarily increased — and the excess, worse than being 
thrown away, had served to take away that in- 
crease of crop, that lighter mariing would have 
ensured. But though much and general injury 
was afterwards sustained from the previous work, 
yet it was lessened in extent and degree, and 
sometimes entirely avoided, by the remedial mea- 
sures which were adopted. My observation and 
comparison of all the facts presented, led to the 
following conclusions, and pointed out the course 



52 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



by which to avoid the recurrence of the evil, and 
the means to lessen or remove it, where it had 
already been indicted. 

1st. No injury has been sustained on any soil of 
my iann by marling not more heavily than two 
hundred and fitly heaped bushels to the acre, 
v/ith marl of strength not exceeding j-\,-(j- of calca- 
reous earth. 

2d. Dressings twice as heavy seldom produce 
damage to the firet crop on any scjil — and never even 
on the after crops on any calcareous, or good neu- 
tral soil — nor on any acid soil supplied plentifully 
■with vegetable matter. 

3d. On acid soils marled too heavily, the injury 
is in proportion to the extent of one or all these 
circumstances of the soil — poverty, sandiness, and 
severe croppingand grazing, whether previously or 
subsequently. 

4th. Clover, both red and white, will live and 
flourish on the snots most injured (or grain crops, 
by marling too heavil)-. Thus, in the case belbre 
cited of land adjacent to the pieces measured in 
Exp. 10, and equally over- marled, very heavj^ red 
clover was raised in 1830, by adding gypsum, and 
which was succeeded by a" good gruvvth of corn, 
free from every mark of disease, in 1S32. 

5th. A good dressing of putrescent manure re- 
moves the disease completely, (see page 43.) All 
kinds of marl (or fossil shells) have sometimes 
been injurious — but such effects have been more 
generally experienced from the dry yellow mai'l, 
than from the blue and wet. It is possible that 
Bonie unknown ingredient in the former may add 
to its hurtful |)ower. 

The infijrences to be drawn from these f;icts are 
evident. They direct us to avoid injury, by ap- 
plying marl lightly at first, and to be sfill luore cau- 
tious according to the existence of the circum- 
stances stated as increasing the tendency of marl 
to do harm. Next, if the over-dose has already 
been given, to forbid grazing entirely, and to fur- 
nish putrescent manure as far as possible — or to 
omit one or two grain crops, so as to allo\v more 
vegetable matter to be fixed in the land — to apply 
putrescent manures — and to sow clover as soon as 
circumstances permit. One or more of these reme- 
dies have been used on most of my too heavily 
marled land — and with considerable, though not al- 
ways with entire success, because the means for 
the cure covdd not always be furnished at once in 
sufficient abundance. Other persons, who per- 
mitted close grazing, and adopted a more scour- 
ging rotation of crops, have suffered more damage, 
from lighter dcssings of marl than mine. 

But though the unlooked tor damage sustained 
from this cause produced much loss and disappoint- 
ment, and has greatly retarded the progress of my 
improvements, it did not stop my marling, nor 
abate my estimate of the value of I he manure. 
If a cover of five hundred or six hundred bushels 
was so strong as to injure land of certain qualities, 
it seemed to be a fair deduction, that the benefit 
expected from so heavy a dressing, might have 
been obtained from half the quantity — if not on 
the first crop, at least on every one afterwards. 
That surely is nothing to be lamented. It also 
afforded some consolation for the evil of the too 
heavy marlings already applied, that the soil was 
thereby fitted to seize and retain a greater quan- 
tity of vegetable matter, and would thereby ul- 
timately reach a higher degree of fertility. 



The cause of this disease is less apparent thaiv 
its remedies. It is certain that it is not produced ' 
merely by the quantity of calcareous earth in the' 
soil. If it were so, similar effects would always . 
be found on soils co)itaininglar greater proportions i 
of that earth. Such effects arenot known to any V 
extent, except on soils formerly acid, and made: 
calcareous artificially. The small spots of land; 
that nature has made excessively calcareous and'' 
sandy (as the specimen 4, page 19,) produce a pt le" 
feeble growtli of corn, such as might be expected . 
from a poor gravel — but whether the plants yield; 
grain, or are barren, they show none of those pecu-'j 
liar and strongly marked symptoms of disease 
which have been described. 

By calculation, it appears that the heaviest i", 
dressing causing injiuijtis consequences, mixed to i, 
the depth of five iiu-luv, has not given to the soil '" 
a proportion of caiciu-eous earih equal to two per |[| 
cent. This proportion is greatly exceeded in our; 'J' 
best shelly land, and no such disease is found there, 
even when the rich mould is nearly all washed 
away, and the shells mostly leit. Soils of remarkr i, 
able ieriility fi-oin the prairies of Alabama and ij^ 
Mississippi have been shown (page 22) tal 
contain li-om 8 to 16 per cent, of calcareous earth 
all of which [iroportions were in the state of most 
minute division, and therefore most ready to pro- 
duce this disease, if it could have been producedff 
by the quantity of this ingredient. Very fertile 
soils in France and England sometimes contain 
twenty or thirty per cent, of calcareous earth.' 
Among the soils of remarkable good quahliea Jl"' 
analyzed by Davy, one is stated to contain about t' 
y-,°7, and another, which was eight-ninths of sil 
cious sand, contained nearly y'^'^j^ of calcareous 3 
earth. Nor does he intimate that such proportions -^ 
are very rare. Similar results have been stated, 
from analyses reported by Kirvvan, Young, Berg- j"" 
man, and Rozier, (page 46,) and fi-om all, the same ■'''' 
deduction is ine\'itable, that much larger natural y\ 
proportions of calcareous earth, than our diseased 
lands have received, are very common in France 
and England, without any such effect being pro- 
duced. 

From the numerous facts of which these are ex- 
amples, it is certain that calcareous earth acting 
alone, or directly, has not caused this injury: and 
it seems most probable that the cause is some new 
combination of lime formed in acid soils only — and 
that this new combination is hurtful to grain under 
certain circumstances which we may avoid — and 
is highly beneficial to every kind of clover. Per- 
Iiajjs it is the saZi fi/" Zi??ie, formed by the calca- 
reous manure with the acid of the soil, which not 
meeting with enough vegetable matter to combine 
with aiid fix in the soil, causes by its excess, all 
these injurious effects. 



J be 



■■tfi. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



RECAPITULATION OF TIIK EFFECTS OF CAL- 
CAREOUS MANURES, AND DIRECTIONS FOK j"**' 
THEIR MOST PROFITABLE APPLICATION. |*' 

Proposition 5. Continued. 

From the foregoing experiments may be ga- 
thered moi?t of the effects, both injurious and 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



53 



neficitil, to be expected from calcareous ina- 
ire.s. Oil the several kinds oi" soils iiere described, 
ibriiiatioa obtained li'uin statements in detail oi 
^'icuitiirai experiments, is tiir morcsalis.iictory ^o 
a attentive and laborious iruiuirer, than a mere 
port of the general opinions of the experimenter, 
;rived from the resuhs. But however preierable 
ay be this mods ol" reporting tiicts, it is necessa- 
y deficient in method, clearness, and concise- 
jss. It may thereibre be useful to bring togetiier 
[e general results of these experiments in a some- 
hat digested form, to serve us rules tor practice, 
her elt'ects of calcareous manures will also be 
ated, which are equally established by expe- 
;nce, but which did not belong to any one accu- 
tcly observed experiment. 

Tiie results that have been reported confirm in 
must every particular the ciicnfical powers bcjore 
tributed to calcareous mainuvs, by the theory of 
eir action. Il is admitted that causes andefiects 
ere not always proportioned — and that some- 
nes tiivial apparent contradictions were presenl- 
1. Bat this is inevitable, even with regard to 
best established doctrines, and the most per- 
ct processes in agriculture. There are many 
t-actices universally admitted to be beneficial — 
et there are none, which are not found sometimes 
selcss, or hurtful, on account of some other at- 
ndant circumstance, which was not expected, 
d i)erhaps not discovered. Every aj)plication of 
ilcareous earth to soil, is a chemical operation on 
great scale: decompositions and new corabina- 
ous are produced, and in a manner generally cou- 
)rmi:ig to the operator's expectations. But other 
nd unknown agents may sometimes have a share 
the process, and thus cause unlooked for results, 
ach differences between practice and theory have 
ometimes occurred in my use of calcareous ma- 
ures (as may be observed in some of the report- 
d experiments) but they have neither been fre- 
uent, uniform, nor important. 

Under like circunjstaaces in other respects, th{5 
enefit derived from marling will be in [iroportion 
b the quantity of vegetable or other putrescent mat- 
er given to the soil. It is essential that the culti- 
■ation should be mild, and that no grazmg be per- 
.nittedon poor lands. VVherever farm-yard manure 
i used, the land should be marled heavily, and ii' 
he marl is applied first so much the better. The 
ne manure cannot act by fixing the other, except 
'.0 far as they are in contact, and both well mixed 
vith the soil. 

On galled spots, from which all the soil has been 
cashed, and where no plant can live, the applica- 
ion of marl alone is utterly useless. Putrescent 
nanures alone would there have but little effect, 
iniess in great quantity, and would soon be all 
ost. But marl and putrescent matter together 
ierve to form a new soil, and thus both are brought 
nto uselul action: the marl is made active, and 
he putrescent manure permanent. The only per- 
fect cures that I have been able to make, at one 
iperation, of galls produced upon a barren subsoil, 
vere by applying a heavy dressing of both calca- 
eous and putrescent manures together: and this 
nethod may be relied on as certainly effectual. 
3ut though a fertile soil may thus be created, and 
Lxed durably on galls otherwise irreclaimable, the 
;ost will generally exceed the value of the land 
ecovered, from the great quantity of putrescent 
natter required. Much of our acid hillv land, 



has been deprived by washing of a considerable 
portion of its natural sod. though not yet made 
entirely barren. The ibregoing remarivs equally 
apply to this kind of land, to tfie extent that its 
soil has been carried off. It will be i;rofitablc to 
apply marl to such land— but its effect will be di- 
nunished, in };roportion to the previous removal of 
the soil. Calcareous soiis are much less apt to 
wash than other kinds, irom the difi'erence of tex- 
ture. When a field that has been injured by 
washing is marled, within a few years afier many 
of the old galleys will begin to produce vegetation, 
and show a soil gradually forming irom the dead 
vegetables brouglu there by winds and rains, al- 
though no means should have been used to aid this 
opei-aiion. 

The effect of marling will be much lessened by 
the soil being kept under exhausting cultivation. 
.Such were the cii'cumstances under wliich we may 
suppose that marl was tried and abandoned many 
years ago, in the case referred to in [;age 37. Pro- 
ceeding upon the false su|jposiiioa ilial nuui waa 
to enricli by direct action, it is most prohable tiiat 
it was applied to some of the j;oorest and most 
exhausted land, for the purpose of giving the ma- 
nure a '-lair trial." The disappointment of such 
ill-lbundi'd expectations, was a sufficient reason 
fur tlie experiment not being repeated, or being 
scarcely ever referred to again, except as evidence 
of the worthlessuess of nuul. Yet with proper 
views of the action of this manure, this experi- 
ment might at first, have as well proved the early 
efficacy and value of marl, as it now does its du- 
rabijity. 

VYiicn acid soils are equally poor, the increase 
of the first crop from marling will be greater on 
sandy, than on clay soiis; th3Uu,h the latter, by 
heavier dressings and longer liai'', nuu' uliiinately 
become the best land, at least lor wiio;U and for 
grass. The more acid the growth of any soil is, 
or would be, if suffered to stand, the UKirc increase 
of" crop may be expected from miul; which is di- 
rectly the reverse of the efi'ects of putrescent ma- 
nures. The increase of the first crop on worn acid 
soil, I have never known under fiity per cent., and 
more often is as much as one hundred — and the 
improvement continues to increase, under mild til- 
lage, to three or four times the original product of 
the land. [See Exp. 11, page 46, and Exp. 4 
and 6.] In this, and other general statements of 
eli'ects, I su[)po3e the land to bear not more than 
two grain crops in four years, and not to be sub- 
jected to grazing — and that a suflicient cover of 
marl has been laid on for use, and not enough to 
cause disease. It is true, that it is difficult, if not 
impossible, to fix that proper medium, varying as 
it may on every change oi' soil, of .situation, and 
of the kind of marl. But whu'Cver error may be 
made in the proportion of marl applied, let it be 
on the side ol' light dressing, (except where pu- 
trescent manures are also laid on, or designed to 
be laid on before the next course of crops begins) 
— and if less increase of crop is gained to the acre, 
the cost and labor of marling will be lessened in a 
still greater proportion. If, alter tillage has served 
to mix the marl well with the soil, sorrel should 
still show to any extent, it Vv'ill sufficiently indicate 
that not enough marl had been applied, and that 
it may be added to, safely and profitably. If the 
nature of the soil, its condhion and treatment, and 
the strength of the marl, all were known, it uoukl 



54 



0?r CALCAkEOUS MANURES. 



be easy to direct the amount of a suitable dress- 
ing: but without knowing these circumstances, it 
will be safest to give two hundred and fifty, or 
three hundred bushels to the acre of worn aciil 
soils, and at least twice as much to newly cleared, 
or well manured land. Besides avoiding danger, 
it is more profitable to marl lightly at first on weak 
lands. If a farmer can carry out only ten thousand 
busliels of marl in a year, he will derive tiiore pro- 
duct, and confer a greater amount of improve- 
ment, by spreading it over forty acres of the land 
intended fjr his next crop, than on twenty: though 
the increase to the acre, would probably be great- 
est in the latter case. By the lighter dressing, the 
land of the whole firm will be marled, and be 
storing up vegetable matter lor its progressive im- 
provement, in half the time that it could be marled 
at double the rate. 

The greater part of the calcareous earth applied 
at one time cannot begin to act as manure before 
several years have passed, owing to the coarse 
state of many of the shells, and the want of tho- 
roughly mixing them with the soil. Therefore, if 
enough marl is applied to obtain its full effect on 
the first course of crops, there will certainly be too 
much afterwards. 

Perhaj^s the greatest profit to be derived from 
marling, though not the most apparent, is on such | 
soils as are full of wasting vegetable matter. Here 
the effect is mostly preservative,and the benefit and ! 
profit may be great, even though the increase of j 
crop may be very inconsiderable. Putrescent ma- 
nure laid on any acid soil, or the natural vegetable 
cover of those newly cleared, without marl, would 
soon be lost, and the crops reduced to one-half, or 
less. But when marl is previously applied, this 
waste of lertility is prevented; and the estimate of 
benefit should not only include the actual increase 
of crop caused by marling, but as much more as 
the amount of the diminution, which would other- 
wise have followed. Every intended clearing of 
woodland, and especially of that under a second 
growth of pines, ought to be marled before cutting 
down — and it will be still better, if it can be done 
several years before. If the application is delayed 
until the new land is brought under cultivation, 
though much putrescent matter will be saved, 
etill more must be wasted. By using marl some 
years before obtaining a crop from it, as many 
more successive growths of leaves will be convert- 
ed to useful manure, and fixed in the soil — and the 
increased fertility will more than compensate for 
the delay. By such an operation, we make a loan 
to the soil, with a distant time for payment, but on 
ample security, and at a high rate of compound 
interest. 

Some experienced cultivators have believed that 
the most profitable way to manage pine old fields, 
when cleared of their second growth, was to cul- 
tivate them every year, until worn out — because, 
as they said, such land would not last much long- 
er, no matter how mildly treated. This opinion, 
wliich seems so absurd, and in opposition to all 
the received rules for good husbandry, is consider- 
ably supported by the properties which are here 
ascribed to such soils. When these lands are first 
cut down, an immense quantity of vegetable mat- 
ter is accumulated on the surface — which, not- 
withstanding its accompanying acid quality, is 
capable of making two or three crops nearly or 
quite as good as the land was ever able to bring, i 



n 



But as the soil has no power to retain this vegeta-ijai 
ble matter, it will begin rapidly to decompose andi 
waste, as soon as exjiosed to the sun, and will be I 
lost, except so much as is caught while escai;ing,iii 
by the roots of growing crops. The previous ap-k 
plication of marl, would make it profi'able iaib 
these, as well as other cases, to adopt a mild anci(i|o' 
meliorating course of tillage. •|ii 

Less improvement will be obtained by marling |i 
worn soils of the kind called "li-ee light land," t 
than other acid soils which originally produced k 
much more sparingly. The early productiveness 
of this kind of soil, and its rapid exhaustion by , 
cultivation, at first view seem to contradict the i 
opinion, that durability and the ease of improving^! 
by putrescent manures are proportioned to theitii 
natural fertility of the soil. But a iull considera-ijoi 
tion of circumstances will show that no such con-" 
tradiction exists. 

In defining the term natural fartUity, it was 
staled that it should not be measured by the ear-ili 
liest products of a new soil, which might be eitheri 
much reduced, or increased, by temporary causes.fe 
The early fertility of free light land is so rapidlyylu 
destroyed, as to take away all ground for consider-:ti 
ing it as fixed in, and belonging to the soil. It isild 
like the efiect of dung on the same land afterwards, ;ti! 
which throws out all its effect in the course of oneiur 
or two years, and leaves the land as poor as be- ) 
fore. But still it needs explanation why so much 
productiveness can at first be exerted by any acid ^, 
soil, as in those described in the 14th experiraent.Sv 
The cause may be found in the following reasons.ijjh 
These soils, and also their subsoils, are principallyiie 
com])osed of coarse sand, which makes them oih 
more open texture than best suits pine, and (whenrlf 
rich enough) more favorable to other trees, thodili 
leaves of which have no natural acid, and there-lki 
lore decompose more readil}% As fast as the falleniffi 
leaves rot, they are of course exposed to waste — - 
but the rains convey much of their finer part* 
down into the open soil, Avhere the less degree oh 
heat retards their final decomposition. Still this! 
enriching matter is liable to be f lirther decomposed,!' 
and to final waste: but though continually wast- 
ing, it is also continually added to by the rotting! 
leaves above. The shelter of the upper coat of» 
unrotted leaves, and the shade of the trees, cause 
the first, as well as the last stages of decomposition, 
to proceed slowly, and to favor the mechanical 
process of the products being mixed with the soil. 
But there is no chemical union of the vegetable 
matter with the soil. When the land is cleared, 
and opened by the plough, the decomposition ot 
all the accumulated vegetable matter is hastened 
by the increased action of sun and air, and in a 
short time converts every thing into food for plants. 
This abundant supply suffices to produce two or 
three fine crops. But now, the most fruitfiil 
source of vegetable matter has been cut off — and 
the soil is kept so heated (by its open texture) as 
to be unable to hold enriching matters, even if 
they were furnished. The land soon becomes 
poor, and must remain so, as long as these causes ' 
operate, even though cultivated under the mildest 
rotation. When the transient fertility of such a 
soil is gone, its acid qualities (which were before 
concealed in some measure by so much enriching 
matter,) become evident. Sorrel and broom grass 
cover the land— and if allowed to stand, pines will 



PART 11— PRACTICE. 



55 



ke complete possession, because the poverty of 
e soil leaves them no rival to contend with. 
Marling deepens cultivated sandy soils, even 
.wer than the plough may liave penetrated. This 
as an unexpected result, and when first observed, 
:;emed scarcely credible. But this etiect also is a 
bnsequence of the power of calcareous earth to 
x nuuiures. As stated in the Ibregoing para- 
j-aph, the soluble and finely divided particles of 
tied vegetable matters are carried by the rains 
blow the soil: but as there is no calcareous earth 
lere to fix them, ihey must again rise in a gase- 
js form, after their last decomposition, unless j)re- 
lously taken up by growing plants. Eut after 
;ie soil is marled, calcareous as well as putrescent 
latter is carried down by the rains as far as the 
)il is open enough lor them to pass. This will 
Iways be as deep as the ploughing has been, and 
"oose earth, somewhat deeper — and the chemi- 
al union formed between these different sub- 
ances, serves to fix both, and thus increases the 
epth of the soil. This efiect is very different 
.pm the deepening of a soil by letting the plough 
in into the barren subsoil. If by this mechani- 
\1 process, a soil of only three inches is increased 
» five, as much as it gains in depth, it loses in 
ichness. But when a marled soil is deepened 
radualiy, its dark color and apparent richness is 
icreased, as well as its depth. Formerly single- 
lorse ploughs were used to break all my acid soils, 
ind even they would often turn up subsoil. The 
verage depth of soil on old land did not exceed 
iree inches, nor two on the newly cleared. Even 
e.fore marling was commenced, my ploughing 
ad generall}' sunk into the subsoil — and since 
825, most of this originally thin soil has required 
ree mules, or two good horses to a plough, to 
reak the necessary depth. The soil is now Irom 
ve to seven inches deep generally, from the joint 
peration of marling and dee])ening the ploughing 
little in the beginning of every course of crops. 
How destructive to tlie power of soil this depth 
f ploughing would have been, without marling, 
tiay be inferred Irom the continued decrease of 
he crop, through lour successive courses of a very 
nild rotation, on the spot kept whhout, marl in ex- 
lerimenl 10. Yet the depth of ploughing there did 
lot exceed six inches, and depths of nine and even 
welve inches were tried, without injurj-, on parts 
if the adjacent marled land. 

Besides the general benefit which marling 
auses equally to all crops, by making the soils 
hey grow on richer and more productive, there 
sire other particular benefits which afiect some 
blants more than others. For example, marling 
lervesto make soils warmer, and thereby hastens 
he ripening of every crop, more than would take 
)lace on the like soils, if made equally produc- 
tive by other than calcareous manures. This 
[uality of marled land is highly important to col- 
on, as our summers are not long enough to ma- 
;ure the later pods. Wheat also derives especial 
oenefit from the warmth thus added to the soil: it 
s enabled better to withstand the severe cold of j 
vinter; and even the short time by which its | 
•ipening is forwarded by marling, serves very i 
Tiuch to lessen the danger of the crop from rust. 
Wheat also profits by the absorbent power of ' 
aaarled land, (by which sands acquire, to some ex- 
tent, the best qualities of clays,) though less so ' 
:han clover and other grasses that flourish beet in j 



a moist climate. Indian corn does not need more 
time for maturing than our summers afford (except 
on the poorest land,) and can sustain much 
drought without injury; and therefore is less aided 
by these qualities of marled land. Most (if not 
all) the different plan!s of the pea kind, and all 
the varieties of clover, derive such remarkable 
benefit from marling, that it must be caused by 
some peculiarity in the nature of those plants. 
Perhaps a large portion of calcareous earth is ne- 
cessary as part of their food, to aid in the forma- 
tion of the substance of plants, as well as to pre- 
serve their healthy existence. 

On acid soils without manure it is scarcely pos- 
sible to raise red clover — and even with every aid 
from putrescent manure, the crop will be both un- 
certain and unprofitable. The recommendation of 
this grass as part of a general system of cultiva- 
tion and improvement, by the author of ylrator, is 
sufficient to prove that his improvements were 
made on soils f;\r better than such as are general. 
Almost every zealous cultivator and improver (in 
prospect) of acid soil has been induced to attempt 
clover culture, either by the recommendations of 
writers on this grass, or by the success witnessed 
on better constituted soils elsewhere. The utmost 
that has been gained by any of these numerous 
efforts, has been sometimes to obtain one, or at 
most two mowings, of middling clover, on some 
very rich lot, which had been prepared in the most 
periect manner by the previous cultivation of to- 
bacco. Even in such situations, tliis degree of 
success could only be obtained by the concurrence 
of the most liivorable seasons. Severe cold, and 
sudden alternations of temperature in winter and 
spring, and the spells of hot and dry weather 
which we usually liave in summer, were alike fa- 
tal to the growth of clover, on so unii-iendly a soil. 
The few examples of partial success never served 
to pay f()r the more frequent failures and losses; 
and a ^ew years' trial would convince the most 
ardent, or the most obstinate advocate for the clo- 
ver husbandry, that its introduction on the great 
body of land in Lower Virginia, was absolutely 
impossible. Still the general failure was by com- 
mon consent attributed to any thing but the true 
cause. There was always some reason offered for 
each particular failure, sufficient to produce it, and 
but tor which, (it was supposed) a crop might 
have been raised Either the young plants were 
killed by freezing soon after first sjirinfring from 
the seed — or a drought occurred when the crop 
was most exposed to the sun, by reaping the shel- 
tering crop of wheat — or native and hardy weeds 
overran the crop — and all such disasters were sup- 
posed to be increased in force, and rentlered gene- 
rally fatal, by our sandy soil, and hot and dry sum- 
mers. But after the true evil, the acid nature of 
the soil, is removed by marling, clover ceases to be 
a feeble exotic. It is at once naturalized on our 
soil, and is able to contend with rival plants, and to 
undergo every severity and change of season, as 
safely as our crops of corn and wheat — and offers 
to our acceptance the fiuition of those hopes of 
profit and improvement fiom clover, with which 
heretofore we have only been deluded. 

After much waste of seed and labor, and years 
of disappointed efforts, I abandoned clover as 
utterly- hopeless. But after marlTng the fields on 
which the raising of clover had been vainly at- 
tempted, there arose fi-om its scattered and feeble 



5Q 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



remains, a growth which served to prove thai its 
cultivation would tlien be satij and profitable. It 
has ciince been gradually extended nearly over all 
the fields. It will stand well, and maintain a 
healtliy growth on the poorest marled land: but 
the crop is too scanty ibr mowing, or perhaps lor 
profit ol'any kind, on most sandy soils, unless aided 
by gyi SLun. Nirivly cleared lands yield better 
clover tlianthe old, though the latter may produce 
as heavy grain crops. The remarkable croj.s of 
clover raised on very poor clay soils, at'^er marling, 
have been already described. This grass, even 
without gyjisum, and still more if aided by that 
manure may .-aid greatly to the improving power 
of marl: but it v.'iU do more harm than service, il' 
we greedily take Irom the soil too large a share of 
the supply of putrescent matter which it afibrds. 

Some other plants less welcome than clover, are 
equally favored by marling. Greensward, blue 
, grass, wire grass, and partridge pea, will soon in- 
' crease so as to be not less impediments to tillage, 
than evidences of an entii-e change in the charac- 
' ter and power of the soil. 

If the foregoing views may be confided in, the 
general course most proper to pursue in using cal- 
careous manures may thence be deduced without 
difficult)". But as I have found, since the publi- 
cation of the first edition of this essay, that many 
persons still ask for more special directions to guide 
their operations, and as all such difficulties may 
not be entirely obviated even by the more full de- 
tails now given, I will here add the Ibllowing di- 
rections, at the risk of their being considered su- 
perfluous. These dircctin!)-'. like all the foregoing 
reasoning, may iiti !y ;;'::S"r;;!|y, if not entirely, to 
the use of all kin.! - ni' en! niwius manures, and to 
soils in various rcviniis: but to avoid too wide a 
rang'^ 1 sli;tll coiisidcr them as ai-plied |;ar(icularly 
to the poor l.ui.ds, and to the f()s's!! sliells, or marl, 
of the tide-vra*er region, and addressed to persons 
who arc just commencing their improvements. 

As the cheapest mode of furnishing vegetable 
matter to land intended to be marled and cultiva- 
ted, no grazing should be permitted. It is best to 
put the marl on the grass previous to ploughing 
the field lor corn, as the early efllect of this manure 
is greatest when it has been placed in contact with 
the vegetable matter. Bst this advantage is not 
so great as to indur;' i!ii> j !>\igliing to he delayed, 
or to stoj) the muiim-i- ;u';t I hat operation. When 
the iTiarl is sprca 1 iipun the ploughed surlixce, it 
can be better mixed with the soil by the cultiva- 
tion of the crop — and this advantage in some mea- 
sure com!)ensates Ibr the loss of that which would 
liave been obtained from an earlier ajiplication on 
the sod. II marl is | lor.ghed in, it should not be 
so d.^eply as to nrevnt i:s b^ing mixed with llie 
er.il, speedily and flMro sgldy, by the sub^^eiiueni 
tillage. To ma!:e sure of equal dislribulion, tlic 
marl should be sj>r'nid regularly over the yiii1aei\ 
From neglect in this respect, a dressing of niarl is 
often too thin in many places to have its prober ei- 
fect, and in others, so thick as to prove mjurious. 
Hence it is, that marl-burnt s'alks of corn, and 
tufts of sorrel are sometimes seen on the sivme 
acre. 

After the first year, the farmer may generally 
marl fist r- ;:)V;i>:!i !■) koi^p alr^ad of his culiiva'ion: 
and even i'i,.!;;j'i h;> sh:itil I reduce the space of 
his tiilage to on';'-h;il[' it will be best for him not to 
put an acre in corn without its being marled. IT'ir- 



ty acres can generally be both marled and tilled, asi j 
chcap.iyas one hundred can be tilled without marl- 
ing; and the fiity wall produce as much as the hmi-i 
dred, in the first course of croi:s, and much more 
afterwards. 

That rotation of crops v/hich gives most vege- 
table matter to the soil, is best toaid the effect of' 
marl recently aj^plied. The four-shift rotation is 
convenient in this respect, because two or three- 
years I'l' i-;:?! may be given in each course of the 
rotation at tiisi, upon the poorest land; and the .^ 
number of exhai.sdng croj;s may be increased, 
iiist to two, then to three in the rotation, as the.ij, 
soil advances to its Ifighest state of ]a-oductiveness. 

After marling, clover should be sown, and g} ; 
sum on the clover. On poor, though marletl Ian. 
of course only a ]ioor growth of clover can be ex 
pected: but wherever other manures are given,, 
and especially if gypsum is Ibund to act well, the-i 
crop of clover becomes a most important part of. 
the improvement by marling. Without clover,; 
»md without returning the greater part of its pio-: 
lluct to the soil, the great value of marling will noti 
pe seen. A small proportion of the clover may bet, 
iiscd as food for cattle — and in a few years thias,' 
small share will far exceed all the grass that \he( 
fields furnished before marling, and the limitationi 
of" grazing. What is at first considered as lessen-, 
ing the food of grazing stock, and their products,:^ 
within a i'ew years becomes the source of a fan 
more abundant supply. j. 

During the first lew years of marling, but littlet ' 
attention can (or ought to) be given to making pu- 
trescent manures, because the soil much more- 
needs calcareous manure — and three acres may\/| 
gcncridly be supplied with the latter, as cheaply as: 
one wiiii the former. But putrescent manures 
cannot any w hei-e be used to so much advantage, 
as uj^on poor soils made calcareous: and no farmeri 
can make and aj>j)ly vegetable matter as manureo 
to greater profit than he who has marled his poor 
fields, and can then withdraw his labor from ap- 
plying the more to the less profitable manure. Af-', 
ter the farm has been marled over at the liglu ratei 
recommended, at first, every effort should be raadet 
to accu.mulute and apply vegetable manures — and 
widi their grad lal extension over the fields, a se- 
cond apjjlicaiion of marl may be made, making, 
the whole quantity in both the first and second! 
marling 500 or 600 bushels to the acre, or eveni 
more, which would have been hurtful if given at 
first, but which will now be not only harmless, but 
necessary to fix and retain so much putrescent 
and nutritive matter in the soil. 

If the course here advised is pursued on poor 
and acid soils, the products will be generally dou- 
i,!'>il in the first course of the rotation — often in the 
!ir.-;i crop immediately following the marling: and 
dio oi-iL?inal p.roduct ma}/ be expected to be tri];lod 
1)\ tiie thir.l return of the rota ion. This wUl be 
liie.'i merely app!)ii^g nuul in sr.ilicient (and n.ot 
excessive) quantiues, and giving the land two 
years rest in four, wiihout grazing. But with the 
aid of flirm-yard and other putrescent manures, 
and of clover, both of which should be largely in 
use during the second course of crops, still greater 
returns may be obtained. 

When s;!ch statements as these are mnde, the 
question n.atin'olly occurs to the reader, '•Has the 
writer himself met with so nmch success, and whatj 
has been the actual result of his labors in general,! 



l»AkT It— PRACTIC13. 



bi 



\ the business so strongly recommended T'' Tliis 
uestion I have no right to slu-ink from, aUhongh 
le answer to be given iully, will be objectionable, 
om the egotism inse|)arable from such details, 
'hi(-h are certainly not worth being thus presented 
) public notice, and which are called lor only be- 
ause silence on this head might be considered as 
iterating against thegeneral tenor of this essayi It 
/ill be sufficient here to state generally, that my 
verage profits from marling, and the increased 
>rtility deri\ed iVoni il, have not been as great as 
re promised above, nor such as might be expected 
•om the most successful experiments of which the 
insults have been re|)orted-— and lor these reasons. 
St. The greater part of my land was not of soil 
le best adapted to be improved by marling. 2n(l. 
laving every thing to learn, and to prove by trial, 
luch of my labor was lost uselessly, or spent in 
xcessive and injurious applications; 3d. The 
tness given to the soil by marl to produce clover 
as not known untd long after that auxiliary to 
npi-ovement ought to have been in iidl use> 4th. 
"rom the want of labor and capital to use both 
alcareou^ and putrescent manures, the collecting 
nd applying of the latter were almost entirely 
eglectcd as long as tiiere was full employment 

I marling. And 5thi That general bad practical 
lanagenicnt, which I have to admit has marked 

II my business, has of course also afiected inju- 
ioasly this important branch-=-though in a less 
egree, because it was as much as possible under 
ly personal and close attention. Willi all these 
rawbacks to complete success, I am able to state 
le following general results of my operations. 
)mitting the land on Coggin's Point iarm not sus- 
eptibleof any con;^iderable or profitable improve- 
lent from marling, the great body of the farm, 
as been trij)led in productive power since 1818, 
i^hen my first experiment v/as made. Particular 

lies of soil now produce iburfold the former 
mount without any other kind of manure: and 
le whole farm including the parts least improved 

well as the most, and allowing for the increase 
if extent, will now make more than double of its 
»est product before marling. 

With all the increase of products that I have 



times as much. Hall's scheme for cultivating 
corn was a stimulus exactly suited to their leth- 
argic state: and that impudent Irish impostor 
found niany steady old-fashioned farmers Avilling 
to pay lor his directions tor making five hundred 
barrels of corn, with only the hand labor of two 
men. 

The products and profits derived from the use of 
marl as presented in the preceding pages, consid- 
erable as they are, have been kept down, or lessen'- 
ed in amourit, by my then want of experience) and 
ignorance of the danger of injudicious applications. 
My errors may at least enable others to avoid sim- 
ilar losseSj and thereby to reach equal profits with 
half the expense of time and labor. But are wei 
to consider even the greatest increase of product 
that has been yet gained in a ^qw years after marl- 
ing, as showing the full amount of improvement 
and profit io be derived? I think not: and if we 
may venture to leave the sure ground of practical 
experience, and look forward to what is promised 
by the theory of the operation of calcareous ma- 
nures, we must anticipate future crops far exceed- 
ing what have yet been obtained. To this, the 
ready objection may be opposed, that the sandi- 
ness of the greater part of our lands will always 
prevent their being raised to a high state of pro- 
ductiveness — and particularh', that no care, nor 
improvement can make heavy crojjs of wheat 
on such soils. This verj^ general opinion is far 
Irom being correct — and as the error is important, 
it may be useful to offer some evidence in support 
of the great value to which sandy soils may ar- 
rive. 

We are so accustomed to find sandy soils poor, 
that it is difficult for us to connect with them the 
idea of fertility, and sfdl less of durability. Yet Brit- 
ish agriculturists, who were acquainted with clays 
and clay loams, of as great value, and as well 
managed under tillage,- as any in the world, speak 
in still higher terms of certain soils, which are 
even more sandy than most of ours. For exam- 
ple— -"Rich sandy soils, however," says Sir John 
Sinclair, "such as those of Frodsliam in Cheshire, 
are invaluable. They are cultivated at a moder- 
ate expense; and at all times have a dry sound- 
ness, accompanied by moisture, which secures ex • 
cellent crops, even in the dryest summers,"* Ro- 
bert Brown, (one of the very few who has de- 
served the character of being both an able writer, 
and a successful jjractical cultivator.) says — "Per- 
haps a true sandy loam incumbent on a sound sub- 
soil, is the most valuable of all soils. "f Young, 
when der-;cribingthe soils of France, in his agricultu- 
vn\ survev ot" that country, in s^everal places speaks 
in the hiifhest terms of different bodies of light or 
sandy soils, of which the following example, of' 
the extensive district which he calls the plain o^ 
the Garonne, will be enough to quote: "It is en- 
" tered about Creisensac, and improves all the 
" way to Montauban and Toulouse, where it m 
" one of the finest bodies of fertile soil that can any 

" where be seen:" "Through all this plain, 

" -wherever the soil is found excellent,- it consists 
" usually of a deep mellow friable sandy loam, 
" wnth moisture sufficient for any thing; much of 
" it is calcareous."^ The soil of Belgium so cele- 



* Code of Agriculture, p. 12. 
t Brown's Treatise oii Agriculture, p. 218, of "Aj 
riculture" in Edin. Ency. 
X Young's Tour in France. 



58 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



brated for its high improvement and remarkable 
productiveness, is mostly sandy. The author last 
quoted, in anotlier work describes a body of land 
in the county of Norfolk, as "one of the finest 

tracts that is any where to be seen" "a fine, 

" deep,meilow,putrid sandy loam,adhesive enough 
" to fear no drought, and liiable enough to strain 
" off superfluous moisture, so that all seasons suit 
" it: from texture fi-ee to work, and from chemical 
" (lualities sure to produce in luxuriance whatever 
" the industry of man commits to its friendly bo- 
" sora."* Mr. Coke, the great Norfolk farmer, 
made on the average 24 bushels of wheat to the 
acre, on an estate of as sandy soil as our South- 
ampton, (where probably a general average of 
two bushels could not be obtained, il'general wiieat 
culture was attempted) — and many other farms 
in Norfolk yielded much better wheat than Mr. 
Coke's in 1804, when Young's survey was made. 
Several farms averaged 36 bushels, and one of 40 
is stated: and the general average of tlie county 
was 24 bushels.! Yet the comity of Norfolk was 
formerly pronounced by Charles II. to be only fit 
*' to cut up into strips, to make roads of for the ba- 
lance of the kingdom" — and that sjiortive descrip- 
tion expressed strongly tlie sandy nature of tlie 
soil, as well as its then state of poverty. 

Because certain quaUties of poor clay soils (par- 
ticularly their absorbent power) make tfiem better 
than poor sands for producing wheat, we most 
strangely attach a value to the stiffness and intrac- 
tability of the former. Yet if all the absorbent 
quality and productive power of clay could be 
given to sand, surely the latter would be the more 
valuable in proportion to its being friable and easy 
to cultivate. The causes of all the valuable qual- 
ities and productive power of the rich sands that 
have been referred to, are only calcareous and pu- 
trescent manures, and depth of soil: and if tlie 
same means can be used, our sands may also be 
made as productive and valuable. I do not mean 
to assert that the most highly improved sandy 
soil can produce as much wheat as the best clay 
soils; but they will not fall so far short as to pre- 
vent their being the most valuable land, for wheat 
as well as other crops, on account of their being 
so easily cultivated, and less liable to suffer fiom 
bad seasons, or bad management. [Appendix K.] 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE PEP.EIAKENCT OF CALCAREOUS MA- 
NURES. 

PROPOSITION 5. Continued. 

It was stated, (page 36) that the ground on which 
an old experiment was made and abandoned as a 
failure, more than fifty years ago, still continues to 
show the effects of marl. Lord Kames mentions 
a fact of the continued beneficial effect of an ap- 
plication of calcareous manure, which was known 
to be one hundred and twenty years old.J Every 
author who has treated of manures of this nature, 



attests their long duration: but when they sa 
that they will last twenty years, or even one bun 
dred and twenty years, it amounts to the admis 
sion that at some iiiture time the effects of thes 
manures w^U be lost. This I deny — and from th 
nature and action of calcareous earth, claim foi 
its effects a duration that will have no end. f 

If calcareous earth applied as manure is not al( 
terwards combined w"ith some acid in the soil, :i 
must retain its first form, which is as indestructit 
ble, and as little liable to be wasted by any cans 
whal;-v<T, ;)s the sand and clay that form the otlicl 
earihy iiii':ri'>Iicnts of the soil. Tlie only possibli 
vent for i;s loss, is the very small proportion take') 
up by the roots of plants, which is so inconsideraj 
ble as scarcely to deserve naming. 

Clay is a manure for sandy soils, serving to clos: 
their too open texture. Wlien so applied, no oni( 
can doubt but that tliis efl(?.ct of the clay will lasJ 
as long as its presence. Neither can calcareouJ 
earth cease to exert its peculiar powers as a muj 
nure, any more than clay can, by the lapse of tinwi 
lose its power of" malving sands more firm and adJ 
hesive. Malving due allowance for the minuti 
quantity drawn up into growing plants, it is as aL! 
surd to OHsert that the calcareous eartli in a soiil 
whether furnished by nature or not, can be ex; 
hausted, as that cultivation can deprive a soil c 
its snnd or clay. 

But on my supposition that calcareous eartl 
will change its forn) by combining with acid ii 
the soil, it may perhaps be doubted whether it i, 
equally safe from waste under its new form, ji 
must be admitted, that the permanency of thii 
compound cannot be proved by its insolubility, ci 
other properties, because neither the kind nor till 
nature of the salt itself is yet known.* But judgin 
fi'om the force with which good neutral soils rf 
sist the exhaustion of their fertility, and their a.i 
ways preserving their peculiar character, it can 
not be believed that the calcareous earth onci 
present, was lessened in durability by its chemicc: 
change of form. It has been contended tliat thi 
action of calcareous earth is absolutely necessari 
to make a poor acid soil fertile: but it does nc 
thence follow that other substances, and particn 
larly this salt of lime, may not serve as well t 
preserve the fertility bestowed by calcareoti 
earth. All that is required for this purpose, is thI 
power of combining with putrescent matter, am 
thereby fixing it in the soil: and judging sole!; 
fi-om effects, this power seems to be possessed i 
an eminent degree by this new combination <i 
lime. If this salt is the oxalate of lime, (as tlieri 
is most reason to believe,) it is insoluble in watC' 
and consequently safe fi-om waste — and the saraf 
property belongs to most other combinations (' 
lime with vegetable acid. The acetate of lime 
soluble in water, and while alone, might be cai 
ried off' by rains. But if it combines with putrei 
cent matter, by chemical affinity, its previous soh 
bility will no longer remain. Copperas is easij 
soluble: but when it forms oneof the componci 
parts of ink, it can no longer be separately tli; 



♦Young's Survey of Norfolk, p. 4. 
fYoung's Survey of Norfolk, p. 300 to 304. 
^Gentleman Farmer, page 266, 2d Edin. Ed. 



*This passage is left as it stood in tlie first editio 
before the discovery of the humic acid was know 
Indeed no aid has been derived from that discover 
nor any change of language made in consequence > 
it, except by inserting the quotation respecting tii 
substance, and the remarks thereon, at page 28. 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



59 



oivi^l by water, or taken away from the coloring 
natier combined with it. In rich limestone soils, 
md some of our best river lands, in which no cal- 
;areous earth remains, we may suppose that its 
ihange olTorm took place centuries ago. Yet how- 
(ver scourged and exhausted by cultivation, they 
till show as strongly as ever, those qualities which 
vere derived trora their former calcareous ingre- 
lient. When the dark color of such soils, their 
lower of absorption, and of holding manures, 
heir h'iability, and their peculiar fitness for clover 
nd certain other plants, arc no longer to be dis- 
inguished, then, and not before, may the salt of 
me be considered as lost to the soil. 
If we keep in mind the mode by which calca- 
eous manure acts, its effects may be anticipated 
or a much longer time than my experience ex- 
ends. Let us trace the supposed effects, from the 
auses, on an acid soil kept under meliorating cul- 
urc. As soon as applied, the calcareous earth 
■ombines with all the acid then present, and to that 
extent, is changed to the vegetable salt of lime. 
The remaining calcareous earth continues to take 
ip the after ibrmations of acid, and (together with 
he salt so produced,) to fix putrescent manures. 
Us fiist as these substances are presented, until all 
he lime has been combined with acid, and 
ill their product combined with putrescent mat- 
er. Both those actions then cease. During all 
[he time necessary lor those changes, the soil has 
jeen regularly increasing in productiveness; and 
t may be supposed that before their completion, 
■he product had risen from ten to thirty bushels of 
:orn to the acre. The soil has then become neu- 
tral. It can never lose its ability (under the mild 
•otation supi)osed,) of producing thirty bushels — 
butithasno power to rise above that product. 
Vegetable food continues to Corm, but is mostly 
tvasled, because the salt of lime is already com- 
ained with as much as it can act on; and Avhate- 
i^er excess of vegetable matter remains on the 
!oilj is kept useless by acid also newly formed, and 
eft free and noxious, as before the application of 
calcareous earth. But though rliis excess of acid 
may balance and keep useless the excess of vege- 
table matter, it cannot affect the previously fixed 
"ertility, nor lessen the power of the soil to yield 
ts then maximum product of thirty bushels. In this 
state of things, sorrel may again begin to grow, 
md its return may be taken as notice that a new 
marling is needed, and will afford additional profit, 
in the same manner as before, by destroying the 
last formed acid, and fixing the last supply of ve- 
getable matter. Thus perhaps five or ten bushels 
naore may be added to the previous product, and 
a power given to the soil gradually to increase as 
much more, before it will stop again for similar 
reasons, at a second maximum product of forty or 
fifty bushels. I pretend not to fix the time neces- 
sary for the completion of one or more of these 
gradual changes: but as the termination of each, 
and the consequent additional marling, will add 
new jirofits, it ought to be desired by the farmer, 
instead of his wishing that his first labor of marl- 
ing each acre, may also be the last required. Every 
permanent addition of five bushels of corn to the 
previous av^erage crop, will more than repay the 
heaviest expense-s that have yet been encounter- 
ed in marling. But whether a second application 
of marl is made or not, I cannot imagine such n 
consequence as the actual decrease of the product 



once obtained. My earliest marled land has been 
severely cropped, compared to the rotation suppo- 
sed above, and yet has continued to improve, 
though at a slow rate. The part first marled in 
1818; has since had only four years of rest in fif- 
teen; and has yielded nine crops of grain, one of 
cotton, and one year clover twice mowed. This 
piece, iiowever, besides being sown with gypsum, 
(with little benefit,) once received a light cover of 
rotted corn-stalk manure. The balance of the 
same piece of land (Exp. 1.) was marled for the 
crop of 1821 — has borne the same treatment since, 
and has had no other manure, except gypsum 
once, (in 1830,) which acted well. These periods 
of twelve and fifteen years, are very short to serve 
as grounds to decide on the eternal duration cf a 
manure. But it can scarcely be believed thafihe 
effect of any temporary manure, would not have 
been somewhat abated by such a course of severe 
tillage. Under milder treatment, there can be no 
doubt but there would have been much greater 
improvement. 

If subjected to a long course of the most severe 
cultivation, a soil could not be deprived of its calca- 
reous ingredient, whether natural or artificial: but 
though still calcareous, it would be in the end, re- 
duced to barrenness, by the exhaustion of its ve- 
getable matter. Under the usual system of ex- 
hausting cultivation, marl certainly improves the 
product of acid soils, and may continue to add to 
the previous amount of crop, for a considerable 
time: yet the thoor}^ of its action instructs us, that 
the uliimate result of marling under such circum- 
stances, must be the more complete destruction of 
the land, by enabling it to yield all its vegetable 
food to growing plants, whicJi would have been 
prevented by the continuance of its former acid 
state. An acid soil yielding only five bushels of 
corn may contain enough food for plants to bring 
fifteen bushels — and its production will be raised 
to that mark, as soon as marling sets free its dor- 
mant powers. But a calcareous soil reduced to 
a product of five bushels, can furnish food for no 
more, and nothing but an expensive application of 
putrescent manures, can render it worth the labor 
of cultivation. Thus it is, thai soils, the improve- 
ment of which is most hopeless without calcareous 
manures, will be the most certainly imijioveu with 
profit by their use. 



CHAPTER ZVni. 



THE EXPENSE AND PRC 



CF MARLIKG. 



PEOPOsiTioif 5. Cc:iduded. 

At this time there are but few persons among 
us who doubt the great benefit to be derived from 
the use of marl: and many of those who ten years 
ago deemed the practice the result of folly, and a 
fit subject for ridicule, now give that manure credit 
for virtues which it certainly does not possess; and 
from their manner of applying it, seem to believe 
it a universal cure for sterility. Such erroneous 
views have been a principal cause of the many 
injudicious and even injurious applications of mari. 
It is as necessary to moderate the ill-founded ex- 
pectations which many entertain, as to excite the 
too t(;eble hopes of others. 

The improvement caused by marimg,and its per- 



60 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



manency, have been established beyond question. 
Stiil the improvement may be paid Ibr too dearly 
— and the ])ropriety of the practice must depend 
entirely on the amount ol' its clear profits, ascer- 
tained by fair estimates of the expenses incurred. 

With those who attempt any calculations of 
this kind, it is very common to set out on tlie mis- 
taken ground that the expense of marling should 
bear some proportion to the selling price of the 
land: and without in the least underratmg the ef- 
fects of marl, they conclude that the improvement 
cannot justify an expense of six dollars on an acre 
of land that would not previously sell ibr tour dol- 
lars. Such a conclusion would be correct if the 
land was held as an article for sale, and intended 
to be disposed of as soon as possible: as the ex- 
pense in that case might not be returned in imme- 
diate profit, and certainly would not be added to 
the price ot the land by the purchaser, under pre- 
sent circumstances. But if the land is held as a 
possession of any permanency, its previous price, 
or its subsequent valuation, has no bearing what- 
ever on the amount which it may be profitable to 
expend tor its improvement. Land that sells at 
tour dollars, is often too dear at as many cents, 
because its product will not pay the expense of 
cultivation. But if by laying out for the improve- 
ment ten dollars, or even one hundred dollars to 
the acre, the average increased annual profit 
would certainly and permanently be worth ten per 
cent, on that cost of improvement, then the ex- 
penditure would be highly expedient and profita- 
ble, We are so generally influenced by a rage for 
extending our domain, that another farm is often 
bought, stocked and cultivated, when a liberal es- 
tima,te of its exj)ected products, would not shov/ 
an annual clear profit of three per cent.: and any 
one would mortgage his estate to buy another 
thousand acres, that was supposed fully capable of 
yielding ten per cent, on its price. Yet the ad- 
vantage would be precisely the same, if the prin- 
cipal money was used to enrich the land already 
in possession, (without regard to its extent, or 
previous value,) with equarassurance of its yield- 
ing the same amount of profit, 

Nothing is more general, or has had a worse 
influence on the state of agriculture, than the de- 
sire to extend our cultivation, and landed posses- 
sions. One of the consequences of this disposi- 
tion, has been to give an artificial value to the 
poorest land, considered merely as so much terri- 
tory, while various causes have concurred to de- 
press the price of all good soils much below their 
real worth. Whatever a farm will sell for. fixes 
its value as merchandise; but by no means is it a 
fair measure of its value as permanent fiirmino- 
capital, ° 

The true value of land, and also of any perma- 
nent improvements to land, I v/ould estimate in 
the following manner. Ascertain as nearly as 
possible the average clear and permanent income, 
and the land is worth as much money as would 
eecurely yield that amount of income, in the form 
of interest — which may be considered as worth 6 
per cent. For example, if a field brings ten dol- 
lars average value of crops to the acre, in every 
course of a four-shift rotation, and the average 
expense of every kind necessary to carry on the 
cultivation, is also ten dollars — then the land jiclds 
nothing, and is worth nothing. It the averao-e 
clear profit was two dollars and forty cents in the 



term, or only sixty cents a year, it would raise the jjiii 
value of the land to ten dollars — and if six dollarsisl 
could be made annually, clear of all expense, it isi 
equally certain that one hundred dollars would be 
the taiv value of the acre. Yet if lands of ];re. 
cisely these rates of profit were oflercd for sale at'is 
this time, the poorest would probably sell for two 
dollars, and the richest lor less than thirty dollars., 
In like manner, it" any field that paid the expense 
of cultivation before, has its average annual netiid 
product increased six dollars for each acre, byk 
some ])ermanent improvement, the value therebyjl'l 
added to the field is one hundred dollars the acre, St 
without regard to its former worth. Let the cost jb: 
and value of marling be compared by this rule,*) 
and it will be found that the capital laid out in thatilii; 
mode of improvement will seldom return an annu-inn 
al interest of less than twenty per cent. — that ibiic 
will more often equal forty — and sometimes I'eachle 
even one hundred per cent, of annual and perma-i« 
nent interest on the investment. The app!ication(|o 
of this rule tor the valuation of such improve- 
ments, will raise them to such an amount, thatljn 
the magnitude of the sum may be deemed a suffi- 
cient contradiction of my estimates. But beforei 
this mode of estimating values is rejected, merely>i] 
on the supposed absurdity of an acid soil bein£ 
considered as raised from one dollar to thirty do!-; 
lars per acre, by a single marling, let it at least bet 
examined, and its fallacy exposed. 

I admit the practical difficulty of applying this; 
rule, however certain may be its theoretical trufh,^i 
It is not possible to fix on the precise clear profit oh 
any farm to its owner and cultivator; and any er-]|i 
ror made in these premises, is increased sixteeniifc 
ibid in the estimate of value founded on them.i 
Still we may approximate the truth with most! 
certainty by using this guide. The early increase* 
of crop from mariing, will in most cases be ami 
equal increase of clear profit, (lor the subsequent! 
improvement and the additional oflal will surely\ 
pay for the increase of labor — ) and it is not very\i 
difficult to fix a value for that actual increase oh 
crop, and thereby to estimate the capital value of» 
the improvement. 

This mode of valuing land, under a different! 
form, is universally received as correct in Kngland.'i 
Cultivation there is carried on almost entirely by\t 
tenants: and the annual rent which any fiirmi| 
brings on a long lease, fixes beyond question whati 
is its annual clear profit to the owner. The price, i 
or value of land, is generally estimated at so niany^l 
"years' purchase," which means as many years' 
rent as will return the purchaser's money. There, t 
the interest of money being low, increases the va- 
lue of land according to this mode of estimation; 
and it is generally sold as high as twenty years' 
purchase. My estimate is less favorable for rais-^ ^ 
ing the value of our lands, as it fixes them at six^ 
teen and a half years' purchase, according to our 
higher rate of interest on m.oney. But though 
this rule for estimating the true value of land, and 
of the improvements made by n)arling, may be 
unquestionable in theorj', still a practical objection 
will be presented by the well known fact that the 
income and profits of farmers are not increased in 
proportion to such improvements, nor is there 
ibund such a vast disproportion as this rule of es- 
timating values would show, between the profits ] 
of the tillers of poor and of rich land. These po-- - 
sitions are admitted to be generally yveW foundcd^wi'j 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



61 



at it.is denied that they invalidate the previous 
stimates. A laniier may, and generally does, 
otain less gross product Irom a large or a rich 
inn, than his njore necessitous, and thereibre 
lore attentive and economical neighbor gels ii-om 
smaller or poorer tarni, in proportion to the pro- 
ucing Dovverof eacii; and even the same persons, 
hen younsi and need}^, have often made more 
rofit according to their means, than utierwards 
hen relieved from want, and having land in- 
eased to a quadruple power of production, 
'hesc, and similar lUcts, however general, only 
re examples of the obvious truth that the profils 
f land depend princi])ally on the industry, econo- 
my, and good management of the cultivator — and 
at many a farmer who can manage well a 
iiall or ]ibor farm, is more deficient in industry, 
bonomy, or the increased degree of kno^vledge 
quired, when possessed of much more abundant 
sources. In short, if these considerations were 
) direct or influence our estimates, we should not 
e comparing and estimating the value of lands, 
ut the value of the care and industry bestowed 
■n their management. 

Another objector may ask, "If any poor land is 
aised in value (according to this estimate) ti-om 
Xie dollar to thirty by marling, would a purchaser 
lake a judicious investment ol his capital, by buy- 
ig this improved land at thirty dollars?" I would 
nswer in the affirmative, if our view was confined 
) this parficular means of investing farming cap- 
al. The purchaser would get a cjear interest of 
ix per cent. — which is always a good return from 
md, and is twice as much as all Lower V^irginia 
tow }'ields. But if such a purchase is compared 
nth other means of acquiring land so improved, 
, would be extremely injudicious — because thirty 
ollars expended in purchasing and marling such 
md, would serve both to acquire and improve five 
r six acres. 

Estimates of the expenses required for marling 
re commonly erected on as improper grounds, as 
iiose of its profits. We never calculate the cost 
f any old practice. We are content to clear 
roodland that afterwards will not pay for the ex- 
ense of tillage — to keep under the jjlough, land 
edticed to five bushels of corn to the acre — to 
luild and continue to repair miles of useless and 
lerishable fences — to make farm -yard manure 
though not much of this fault,) and apply it to 
icid soils — without once calculating whether we 
3se or gain by any of these operations. But let 
.ny new practice be proposed, and then every one 
egins to count its cost — and on such erroneous 
iremises, that if applied to every kind of farm la- 
»or, the estimate would prove that the most fertile 
and known, could scarcely defray the expenses of 
cultivation. 

According to estimates made with much care 
ind accuracy, the cost of an uncommonly expen- 
ive job of marling, four thousand and thirty-six 
mshels in quantity, in 1S24, amounted to five dol- 
ars and thirty-five cents the acre, for five hundred 
Lnd ninety-eight bushels of marl. This quantity 
much too great: four hundred bushels would 
iiave been quite enough for safety and j^rofit, and 
Vould have reduced the \vhole expense, including 
■very necessary preparation, to three dollars and 
ifty-eight cents the acre. The earth which v,'as 
ftken off, to uncover the bed of marl, was consid- 
•;rably thicker than the marl itself. The road from 



the pit ascended hills amounting to forty feet of 
perpendicular elevation — and the average distance 
to the field was eight hundred and lorty-seveii 
yards. 

In 1823, I began to marl another tract of land, 
where the diiliculfies were less. The labor be- 
stowed served to carry out and spread six thousand 
eight hundred and ninety-two tundn'il loads, on 
one hundred and twenty acres of land, being an 
average of two hundred and fiiiy-nine bushels to 
the acre. The exhausted state of the soil made 
heavier dressing unsafe. The whole expense of 
the operation, i'lieluding all the preparatory labor, 
amounted to two dollars and eight cents for each 
acre marled — or eighty-three hundredths of a cent 
for each heaped bushel of- marl. [Appendix L.] 

It is impossible to carry on marhng to advan- 
tage, or with any thing like economy, unless it is 
made a regular business, to be continued through- 
out the year or a specified portion of it, by a 
laboring force devoted lo that purpose, and not 
allowed to be withdrawn for any other. Instead 
of proceeding on this plan, most persons who 
have begun to marl, attempt it in the short inter- 
vals of leisure, afiorded between their different 
farming operations — and without lessening for this 
purpose, the extent of their usual cultivation. Let 
us suppose that preparations have been made, 
and on the first opportunity, a farmer conmiences 
marling with zeal and spirit. But every new labor 
is attended by causes ot' difficulty and delay, and 
a full share ot' these will be found in the first few 
days of marling. The road is soft for want of 
previous use, and if the least wet, soon becomes 
miry. The horses, unaccustomed to carfmg, balk 
at the hills, or only carry half loads. Other dif- 
ficulties occur from the awkwardness of the labor- 
ers, and the inexperience of their master — and 
still more from the usual unwillingness of his over- 
seer to devote anj' labor to improvements which 
are not expected to add to the crop of that year. 
Betbre matters can get straight, the leisure time is 
at an end:^ the v/ork is slopped, and the road and 
pit are left to get out ol' order, before making 
another attempt some six months after, when all 
the same vexatious difficulties are again to be en- 
countered. 

If only a single horse was employed in drawing 
marl throughout the year, at the moderate allow- 
ance of two hundred working days, and one hun- 
dred bushels carried out for each, his year's work 
would amount to twenty thousand bushels, or 
enough lor more than sixty acres. This alone 
would be a great object effected. But besides, 
this plan would allow the profitable employment 
of any amount of additional labor. When at any 
time, other teams and laborers could be spared to 
assist, though for only a few da\s, every thing is 
ready for them to go immediately to Vv'ork. The 
pit is drained, the road is firm, and the field 
marked ofi" for the loads. In this way, much 
labor may be obtained in the course of the year, 
from teams that would otherwise be idle, and la- 
borers whose other employments would be of but 
little importance. The spreading of marl on the 
field, is a job that will a!waj"s be ready to employ 
any spare labor: and throwing oH" the covering 
earth from an intcnJ.pd digging of marl, may be 
done, wlien rain, sr.ow, or severe cold, have ren- 
dered the earth unfit lor ainiosL every other kind 
of labor. 



62 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



Another interesting question respecting the ex- 
pense of this improvement is, to what distance 
Ironi the pit may marl be profitably carried? If 
the amount of labor necessary to carry it half a 
mile is known, it is easy to calculate how much 
more will be required for two or three miles. The 
cost of teams and drivers is in proportion to the 
distance travelled— but the pit and field labor, is 
not ali'ected by that circumstance. At present, 
when so much poor land, abundantly supplied 
with fossil shells, may be bought at from two 
dollars to four dollars the acre, a iarmer had better 
buy and marl a new t'arm, than to move marl even 
two miles to his land in possession. But this 
would be merely declining one considerable profit, 
for the purpose of takin;^ another much greater. 
Whenever the value ot marl is proj^erly under- 
stood, and our lands are priced according to their 
improvements, or their capability of being im- 
proved from that source, as must be the ca*e here- 
after, then this choice of advantages will no longer 
be offered. Then rich marl will be profitably 
carted miles from the pits, and perhaps conveyed 
by water as far as it may be needed. A bushel 
of such marl as the bed on James River, described 
page 49, is as rich in calcareous earth alone, as a 
bushel of slaked lime will be after it becomes car- 
bonated — and the greater weight of the first, is a 
less disadvantage for water carriage, than the 
price of the latter. Farmers on James River who 
have used lime as manure to great extent and 
advantage, might more cheaply have moved rich 
marl twenty miles by water, as it would cost no- 
thing but the labor of digging and transportation. 

Within the short time that has elapsed since 
the fir^t publication of the foregoing passages in 
the first edition of this essay, the transportation of 
marl by water carriage has been commenced on 
James River, and has been carried on with more 
facility and at less expense, than was anticipated. 
The fiirmers who may profit by this new mode of 
using marl, will be indebted to the enterprise of C. 
H. Minge, Esq. of Charles City, for the making 
a full and satisfactory experiment of the business 
on a large scale. [See Appendix M.] 

The objections to carrying marl unusual dis- 
tances, admitted above, apply merely to improve- 
ments proposed for field culture. But it would be 
profitable, even under existing circumstances, for 
rich marl to be carried five miles by land, or one 
hundred miles by water, for the purpose of being 
applied to gardens, or other land kept under per- 
petual tillage, and receiving frequent and heavy 
coverings of putrescent manure. In such cases, 
independent of the direct benefit which the calca- 
reous earth might afford to the crops, its po.ver 
of combining with putrescent matters, and pre- 
venting their waste, would be of the utmost im- 
portance. If the soil was acid, the making it 
calcareous would enable half the usual supplies of 
manure, to be more elTective and durable than the 
whole had been. .There are other uses for marl, 
about dwelling houses and in towns, which should 
induce its being carried much farther than mere 
agricultural purposes would warrant. I allude to 
the use of calcareous earth in preserving putres- 
cent matters, and thereby promo! mg cleanliness, 
and health. This important subject will hereafter 
be separately considered. 

Either lime or good marl may hereafler be pro- 
fitably distributed over a remote strip of poor land, I 



by means of the rail road now constructing froi 
Petersburg to the Roanoke: providing the pr< 
prietors do not imitate the over greedy policy ( 
the legislature of Virginia, in imposing tolls o 
manures passing through the James River cana 
If there was no object whatever in view, but i 
draw the greatest possible income fi-om tolls C| 
canals and roads, true policy would direct that 8| 
manures should pass from town to country tci 
free. Every bushel of lime, marl, or gypsun 
thus conveyed, would be the means cf bringini 
back in fiiture time, more than as much whei 
or corn — and there would be an actual gain 
tolls, besides the twenty fold greater increasre 
the wealth of individuals and the state. Wo 
ashes, after being deprived of their potash, ha\ 
calcareous earth, and a smaller proporti^i of phot 
phate of lime, as their only fertilizing ingredient 
and both together do not commonly make moi 
than there is of calcareous earth in the same bul 
of good marl. Yet drawn ashes have been pu 
chased largely from our soap factories, at foi>! 
cents the bushel, and carried by sea to be sold fJl 
manure to the fiirmers of Long Island. Excej> 
for the proportion of phosphate of lime Avhich the 
contain, drawn ashes are simply artificial marU 
more fit for immediate action, by being fine: 
divided, but weaker in amount of calcareous eart 
than our best beds of fossil shells. 

The argument in support of the several pre 
positions which have been discussed through Sj 
many chapters, is noAv concluded. However uii 
skilfully, I flatter ni} self that it has been effectuaL 
used; and that the general deficiency in our soi 
of calcareous earth — the necessity of supplyirl 
it — the |)rofit by that means to be derived — aiij 
the hiijh importance of all these considerations-; 
have been established too firmly to be shaken t 
either arguments or fticts, 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE USE OF CALCAREOUS EARTH RECOB 
MENDED TO PRESERVE PUTRESCENT MJ 
NURES, AND TO PROMOTE CLEANLINEt: 
AND HEALTH, ESPECIALLY IN TOWNS 

The operation of calcareous earth in enrichis 
barren soils, has been traced, in a former part j 
this essay, to the chemical power possessed bytM 
earth of combining with putrescent matters, 
with the products of their fijrmentation — and 
that manner, preserving them fi'om waste, for tl 
use of the soil, and for the food of growing phuv 
That power was exemplified by the details of ; 
experiment, (page 31,) in which the carcass of; 
animal was so acted on, and its enriching piop( 
ties secured. That trial of the putrefaction of ai 
mal matter in contact with calcareous earth, w 
commenced with a view to results very diiferc 
liom those which were obtained. Darwin sa 
that nitrous acid is produced in the process of f( 
mentation, and he supposes the nitrate of lime 
be very serviceable to vegetation.* As the i 
trous acid is a gas, it must pass off into the ti 



*Darwin's Phytologia, pp. 210 and 22-1. Dublin Ei 
tion. 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



63 



milcr ordinary circunistancee, as fast as it is form 

il, aiul lie entirely lost. But as it is strongly at 

larted by lime, it was supposed thtit a cover of 

alrareous earth would arrest it, and form a new 

uiiiliination, which, if not precisely nitrate of lime, 

s'diili! at least be composed of the same elements, 

lii)ii<2-h in difl'erent proportions. To ascertain 

vhiiher any such combination had taken place, 

' vhen the manure was used, a handful of the marl 

111 vas taken, which had been in immediate contact 

™ vith the carcass, and thrown into a glass of hot 

't vater. After remaming half an hour, the fluid 

' vas poured ollj filtered, and evaporated, and left a 

* onsiderable proportion of awiiite soluble salt (sup- 
M )osed eight or ten grains.) I could not ascertain 
5' ts kind— but it was not deliquescent, and there- 
in ore could not have been the nitrate of lime. The 
nil ipot on which the carcass lay, was so strongly im- 
iM iregnated by this salt, that it remained bare of ve- 
'iil relation lor several years, and until the field was 
|ii i)longhed up lor cultivation. 

HI • But whatever were the products of fermenta- 
li ion saved by this experiment, the absence of all 
t| jfFensive effluvia throughout the process sufficient- 
it y proved that little or nothing was lost — as every 
I- itom must be, when flesh putrefies in the open 
«l lir: and I presume that a cover of equal thick- 
it less of clay, or sand, or any mixture of both, 
vithout calcareous earth, would have had very lit- 
:le effect in arresting and retaining the aeriform 
1 products of putrefaction. All the circumstances 
' :if this experiment, and particularly the good ef- 
ect exhibited by the manure when put to use, 
jrove the propriety of extending a similar prac- 
tice. In the neighborhood of towns, or where- 
3ver else the carcasses of animals, or any other 
inimal substances subject to rapid and wasteful 
ermentation, can be obtained in great quantity, 
ill their enriching powers might be secured, by 
iepositing them between layers of marl, or calca- 
reous earth in any other form. On the borders of" 
;he Chowan, immense quantities of herrings are 
)flen used as manure, when purchasers cannot 
:ake ofl' the myriads supplied by the seines. A 
iierring is buried under each corn-hill, and fine 
srops are thus made as fiir as this singular mode of 
manuring is extended. But whatever benefits may 
have been thus derived, the sense of smelling, as 
I well as the known chemical products of the pro- 
cess of animal putrefaction, make it certain that 
(mine-tenths of all this rich manure, when so appli- 
ed, must be wasted in the air. If those who fortu- 
ifnately possess this supply of animal manure, 
ijwould cause the lermentation to take place and be 
ilcompleted, mixetl with and enclosed by marl, in 
ilpits of suitable size, they would increase prodi- 
ligiousl}^ both the amount and permanency of their 
ijacting animal manure, besides obtaining the bene- 
'ifit of the calcareous earth mixed with it. 
'< But without regarding such uncommon, or 

• abundant sources for supplying animal matter, 
levery farmer may considerably increase his slock 
(of putrescent manure, by using the preservative 
Ipower of marl, and all the substances that might 
!be so saved, are not only now lost to the land, but 
jserve to contaminate the air while putrefying, and 
•perhaps to engender diseases. The last conside- 
'ration is of most importance to towns, though 
worthy of attention every where. Whoever will 
(make the trial will be surprised to find how much 
putrescent matter may be collected from the dwel- 



ling house, kitchen, and laundry of a family: and 
which if accumulated (without mixture with cal- 
careous earth,) will soon become so offensive as to 
prove the necessity of putting an end to the prac- 
tice. Yet it must be admitted that when all such 
matters are scattered about (as is usual both in town 
and country,) over an extended surfiice, the same 
putrefaction must ensue, and the same noxious ef- 
fluvia be evolved, though not enough concentrated 
to be very oHensive, or even always perceptible. 
The same amount is inhaled — but in a very diluted 
state, and in small, though incessantly re[)eated 
doses. But if mild calcareous earth in any form 
(and fossil sliells or marl present much the cheap- 
est,) is used to cover and mix with the putrescent 
matters so collected, ihey will be prevented from 
discharging offensive effluvia, and preserved to en- 
rich the soil. A malignant and ever acting ene- 
my will be converted to a friend and benefac- 
tor. 

The usual dispersion and waste of such putres- 
cent and excrcmentitious matters about a farm 
house, though a considerable loss to agriculture, 
may take place without being very olTensive to the 
senses, or certainly injurious to health. But the 
case is widely dilierent in towns. There, unless 
great care is continually used to rernove or destroy 
filth of every kind, it soon becomes offensive, if not 
pestilential. Duringlhelast summer, (1832) when 
that most horrible scourge of the human race, the 
Asiatic cholera, was desolating some of the towns 
ol the United Stales, and all expected lobe visited 
by its fatal ravages, great and unusual exertions 
were every where used to remove and prevent the 
accumulation of filth, which if allowed to remain, 
it was supposed would invite the ajiproach, and 
aid the effects of the pestilence. The efforts made 
for that |)urpose served to show what a vast amount 
of putrescent matter existed in every town, and 
which was so rapidly reproduced, that its complete 
riddance was impossible. Immense quantities 
of the richest manures, or materials for them, were 
washed away into the rivers — caustic lime was 
used to destroy them — and the chloride of lime 
to decompose the offensive products of their fer- 
mentation, when that process had already occur- 
red. All this amount of labor and expense was 
directed to the complete destruction of wliat might 
have given fertility to many adjacent fields — and 
yet served to cleanse the towns but imperfectly, 
and for a very short time. Yet the object in view 
might have been belter attained by llie previous 
adoption of the proper means for preserving these 
putrescent matters, than by destroying Ihem. — 
These means would be to mix or cover all accu- 
mulations of such matters with rich mail, (which 
would be the better for the pur|ose if its shells 
were in small particles,) and in such (juautily as 
the effect would show to be sufficient. But much 
the greater part of the filth of a town is not, and 
cannot be accumulated; and from being dispersed, 
is the most difficult to remove, and is probably tfie 
most noxious in its usual course of lermentation. 
This would be guarded against by covering thick- 
ly with marl the floor of every cellar and stable, 
back yard and stable lot. Every other vacant 
space should be lightly covered. The same course 
pursued on the gardens and other cultivated 
trrounds, would be sufficiently compensated by the 
increased product that would be obtained: but in- 
dependent of that consideration, the manures 



64 



ON CILCAREOUS MANURES. 



there applied would be prevented from escaping 
into the air — and being wholly retained by the soil, 
niuch smaller applications would serve. The level 
sLrecls ought also to be sprinkled with marl, and 
as often as circumstances might require. The va- 
rious putrescent matters usually lell in the streets 
of a town alone serve to make the mud scraped 
Irom them a valuable manure; for the principal 
part of the bulk of street mud is composed merely 
of the barren clay, brought in upon the wheels of 
wagons trom the coinitry. Such a cover of cal- 
careous earth would be the most etibctual absorb- 
ent and preserver of putrescent matter, as well as 
the cheapest mode of keeping a town always clean. 
There would be less noxious or oiiensive etfluvia, 
tlian is generated in spite of all the ordinary means 
of prevention; ayd by scraping up and removing 
the marl alter it had combined with and secured 
enough of putrescent matter, a compost would be 
obtained for the use of the siUTOunding country, 
so rich and so abundant, that its use would repay 
a large part, if not the whole of the expense in- 
curred in its production. Probably one covering 
of marl for each year would serve for most yards, 
&c., but if required oltener, it would only prove 
the necessity for the operation, and show the great- 
er value in "the resuhs. The compost that might 
be obtained Irom spaces equal to five hundn-d 
acres in a populous tov/n, would durably enrich 
thrice as many acres of tlic adjacent country: and 
after twenty years of such a course, the surround- 
ing tiirras might be capable of returning to the 
town a ten ibid mcreased surplus product. After 
the qualities and value of the manure so formed 
Avere properly estimated, it would be used lor 
farms that u'ould be out of the reach of all other 
ciilcareous manures. Carts bringing country pro- 
duce to market might with profit carry back loads 
of this compost eight or ten miles. The annual 
supply that the country might be furnished with, 
would produce very difierent eflects from the pu- 
trescent and fleeting manure now obtained from 
the town stables. Of the little durable benefit 
herelot'ore derived from such means, the appear- 
ance of the country ofiers sufficient testimony. At 
three miles distance from some of the principal 
towns in Virginia, more than half the cultivated 
land is too poor to yield any farming profit. The 
surplus grain sent to market is very inconsidera- 
ble — and the coarse hay from the wet meadows 
can only be sold to those who feed horses belong- 
ing to other persons — and to whom that hay is 
most desirable that is least likely to be eaten. 

But even if the waste and destruction of ma- 
nure in towns was counted as nothing, and the pre- 
servation of health by keeping the air pure was 
the only object sought, still calcareous earth, as 
presented by rich marl, u'ould serve the purpose 
far better than quicklime. It is tnie, that the 
latter substance acts powerfully in decomposing 
putrescent animal matter, and destroys its texture 
and qualities so completely, that the operation is 
commonly and expressively called "burning" the 
substances acted on. .But to use a sufficient quan- 
tity of quicklime to meet and decompose all pu- 
trescent animal matters in a town, would be intol- 
erably expensive, and still more objectionable in 
other respects. If a cover of dry quicklime in 
]50wder was spread over all the surfaces requiring 
it for this purpose, the town would be unfit to live 
in; and the nuisance would be scarcely less, when 



rain had changed the suflbcating dust to an adhe- > 
sive mortar. "Woollen cloiliing, carpets, and even i 
living fiesh would be continualTy sustaining inj^iry ; 
from the contact. No such objections would at- b 
tend the use of mild calcareous earth: and this i 
could b.- obtained probably lor less than one-fiflhi 
of the cost of quicklime, sui)posing an equal quan-ii 
tity of pure calcareous matter to be obtained in^ 
each case. At this time the richest marl on James 
River may be obtained at merely the cost of dig- 
ging, and its carriage by water, wliich if underta^! 
ken on a large scale, could not exceed, and proba- 
bly would not eijual three cents the bushel. ' 

The putrescent animal matters that would be 
preserved and rendered innoxious by the general 
marling of the site of a town, would be mostly 
such as are so dispersed and imperceptible that they; 
would otherwise be entirely lost. But all such aai 
are usually saved in part, would be doubled inl 
quantity and value, and dejjrived of their oiiensive' 
and noxious qualities by being kept mixed withii 
calcareous earth. The importance of this plant 
being adopted with the products of privies, &,c.i 
is still greater in town than country." The va-^i 
rious matters so collected and combined should nevJ 
er be applied to the soil alone, as the salt derived/ 
ii-om the kitchen, and the potash and soap tromr 
the laundry, might be injurious in so concentrated( 
a form, "When the jiit lor receiving this compound* 
is emptied, the contents should be spread ovei' 
other and weaker manure, before being appUed to( 
the field. 

Towns might furnish many other kinds of rich! 
manure, which are now lost entirely. Some of these' 
particularly require the aid of calcareous earth tc 
be secured tiom destruction by putrefaction, and 
others, though not juitrcscent, are equally wasted! 
The blood of slaughtered animals, and the waste 
and rejected articles of wool, hair, feathers, skin, 
horn and bones, all are manures of great richnesa,- 
We not only give the flesh of dead animals to in-i 
feet the air, instead of using it to fertilize the land, 
but their bones which miglit be so easily saved 
are as completely thrown away. Bones are com-i 
posed of phosphate of lime and gelatinous ani ' 
mal matter, and when crushed, Ibrm one of th( 
richest and most convenient manures in the world 
They are shipped in quantities from the continen 
of Europe to be sold for manure in England. Th( 
fields of battle have been gleaned, and their shal 
low graves emptied for this purpose: and tlw 
bones of the ten thousand British heroes who fell oi 
the field of Waterloo, are now performing the less' 
glorious, but more useful purjjose of producint 
as manure bread lor their brothers at home. 

There prevails a vulgar but useful sujjerstition ' 
that there is "bad luck" in throwing into the fir<i' 
any thing, however snmll may be its amount 
value, that can serve for the food of any living ann 
mal. It is a pity that the same belief does not ex; 
tend to ever}^ thing that as manure can serv^e t(' 
feed growing ])lanTs — and that even the parings o' 
nails and clippings of beards are not used (as 
China) in aid of this object. However small ea-cl' 
particular source might be^ the amount of all th( 
manures that might be saved, and which are nov, 
wasted, would add incalculably to the usual meami 
for fertilization. Human excrement, which 
scarcely used at all in this country, is stated to W 
even richer than tliat of birds; and if all the 
riching matters were preserved that are derive*' 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



65 



t only from the food, but from all the habits of 
an, there can be no question but that a town oi" 
1 thousand ijihabitants, from tliose sources alone, 
ght enrich more land than could be done from 
many cattle. 

The opinions here presented are principally 
anded on the theory of the operation of calca- 
aus manures, as maintained in the jbregoing part 
this essay: but they are also sustained to con- 
lerabie extent by lacts and experience. The 
jst undeniable practical proof of one of itiy po- 
ions, is the power of a cover of marl to pre- 
nt the escape of all offensive effluvia from the 
jst putrescent animal matters. Of this power 
ha\e made continued use lor about eighteen 
Miths, and know it to be more efl'ectuat than 
icklime, even if the destructive action of the 
ter was not objectionable. Quicklime forms 
iW combinations with putrescent substances, and 
thus combining, throws off effluvia, which 
f)ugh different from the products of putrescent 
itter alone, are still disagreeable and offensive, 
ild lime on the contrary absorbs and preserves 
ery thing — or at least' prevents the escape of 
y offensive odor being perceived. Whether pu- 
scent vegetable matter is acted on in like man- 
r by calcareous earth, cannot be as well tested 
our senses, and therefore the proof is less satis- 
;tory. But if it is true that calcareous earth 
ts by combining putrescent matters with the 
1, and thus preventing their loss, (as I have en- 
avored to prove in Chapter VIII.) it must follow 
to the extent of such combination, the forma- 
and escape of all volatile products of putrefac- 
n will also be prevented. 

But it will be considered that the most impor- 
it inquiry remains to be answered: Has the ap- 
cation of calcareous manures been found in prac- 
3 decidedly beneficial to the health of the resi- 
nts on the land I I answer, that long expedience, 
d the collection and comparison of numerous 
ts derived from various sources, will be re- 
ired to remove all doubts from this question; and 
vould be presumptuous in any individual to ol- 
as sufficient proof, the experience of only ten 
twelve years on any one farm. But while ad- 
tting the insufficiency of such testimony, I as- 
•t that so iar, my experience decidedly supports 
position. My principal farm until within some 
ir or five years, was subject in a remarkable de- 
56 to the conmion mild autumnal diseases of our 
V country. Whether it is owing to marling, or 
ler unknown causes, these bilious diseases have 
ce become comparatively very rare. Neither 
3S my opinion in this respect, nor the fiicts that 
ve occurred on m}^ farm, stand alone. Some 
ler persons are equally convinced of this change 
other land as well as on mine. But in most cases 
lere I have made inquiries as to such results, 
thing decisive had been observed. The hope 
it other persons may be induced to observe and 
)ort facts bearing on this important point, has in 
rt caused the appearance of these crude and per- 
ps premature views. 

Kven if my opinions and reasoning should ap- 
ar sound, I am aware that the practical appli- 
ion is not to be looked lor soon; and that the 
&ieme of using marl in towns is more likely to 
1 met by ridicule, than to receive a serious and 
Eentive examination. Notwithstanding this an- 
t'ipation, and however hopeless of making con- 



verts either of individuals or of corporate bodies, I 
will oiler a lew concluding remarks on the most 
obvious objections to, and benefits of the plan. The 
objections Avill all be resolved into one — namely, the 
expense to be encountered. The expense cer- 
tainly would be considerable; but it would be am- 
j)ly compensated by the gains and benefits. In the 
firet place the general use of marl as proposed for 
towns, would serve to insure cieanlinessj and pu- 
rity of the air, more than all the labors of their 
Boards of Health and their scavengers, even when 
acting under the dread of approaching pestilence. 
Second!}', the putrescent manures produced ill 
towns, by being merely jjrescrved irom waste, 
would be increased ten-lbld in quantity and value. 
Thirdly, all existing nuisances and abominations 
of filth would be at an end, and the beautiful city 
of Richmond (for example) would not give offence 
to our nostrils, almost as oflen as it offers gratifica- 
tion to our eyes. Lastly, the marl after being used 
until saturated Avith putrescent matter, would re- 
tain all its first value as calcareous earth, and be 
well worth purchasing and removing to the adja- 
cent farms, independent of the enriching manure 
with which it would be loaded. If these advan- 
tages can indeed be obtained, they would be 
chea]:)l_y bought at an}^ j)rice necessary to be en- 
countered lor the purpose. 

The foregoing part of this chapter was first 
published in the Farmers' Register, (lor July 1833) 
and as supplementary to this Essay. That pub- 
lication drevv' some attention from others to the 
subject, and served to elicit many important facts, 
of which I had been before altogether ignorant, 
in support of the operation of calcareous earth in 
arresting the effects of malaria, or the usual au- 
tumnal diseases of the southern states and other 
similar regions. These facts, together with the 
result of my own personal exjjerience, extended 
through two more autumns (or sickly seasons as 
commonly called here and farther south,) since the 
first publication of these views, will now be submit- 
ted. Most of the facts derived from other persons 
relate to one region — the "rotten limestone lands" 
of Southern Alabama: but that region is exten- 
sive, of remarkable and well known character and 
I)eculiarities, and the evidence comes from various 
sources, and is full, and consistent in purport. The 
facts will be here embodied, and the more impor- 
tant statements from which they are drawn, will 
be presented more fully in the Appendix. [See N.] 

The first fact brought out, was, that in the town 
of Mobile, near the Gulf of Mexico, the streets 
actually had been paved with shells — thus present- 
ing precisely such a case as I recommended, 
though not with any view to promoting cleanli- 
ness or health. The shells had been used merely 
as a substitute for stones, which could not be so 
cheaply obtained. Nor had the greatly improved 
healthiness of Mobile since the streets were so 
covered, (of Avhich there is the most ample and 
undoubted testimony,) been attributed to that 
cause, until the publication of the foregoing opin- 
ions served to connect thom as cause and efiect. 
This can scarcely be doubted by those who will 
admit the theory of the action of calcareous earth 
— and the remarkable change from unheallhinesg 
in Mobile, to com])arative healthiness, is a very 
strong exemplification of the truth of the theory. 
But it is not strange, that when so many other 
causes iTiight (and probably did) operate to arrest 



66 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



disease, that none should have considered the 
chemical operation of the shelly pavement as one 
of them, and still less as the one by far the most 
important. The paving of streets, (with any 
material) draining and filling up wet places, sub- 
stituting ibr rotting wooden buildings new ones of 
brick and stone— and especially the operation of 
destructive and extensive fires — all we know oper- 
ate, (and particularly the last,) to improve the 
healthmess of towns : and all these operated at 
Mobile, as well as shelling the streets. Neither 
was the shelling so ordered as to produce its best 
effect for health. The streets, alleys, and many 
yards and small vacant lots were covered, and so 
lar the formation and evolving oi" pestilential ef- 
fluvia were lessened. Eut as this was not the 
object in view, and indeed the chemical action of 
shells not thought ot; the jiroccss was incomplete, 
and must necessarily be less ellectual than it might 
have been made. The shelling ought to have 
been extended to every open spot where filth could 
accumulate— to every back yard, in every cellar, 
and made the material of the floor of every stable, 
and every other building of which the floor would 
otherwise be of conmion earth. In addition, alter 
a sufficient lapse of time to saturate with i)utres- 
cent matters the upper part of the calcareous 
layer, and thus to make it a very rich compound, 
there should be a partial or total removal of the 
mass, and a new coating of shells laid down. The 
value of the old material, as manure, Avould pro- 
bably go tar towards paying for this reiwwal: and 
if it is not so renewed, the calcareous matter can- 
not combine with more than a certain amount of 
putrescent matters — and after being so saturated, 
can have no farther efiect in savino- such matters 
for use, or preventing them from having their usual 
evil course. 

The burning of towns is well known to be a 
cause of the healthiness of the places being great- 
ly improved, and that that effect continues alter as 
many buildings, or more, have replaced those des- 
troyed by fire. Indeed this improvement is con- 
sidered so permanent, as Avell as considerable, 
that the most sweeping and destructive conflagra- 
tions ol' some of our southern towns, have been 
afterwards acknowledged to have proved a gain, 
and a blessing. The piincipal and immediate 
mode of operation of this universally acknowletlged 
cause, is usually supposed to be the total destruc- 
tion, by the fire, of all filth and putrescent matters 
— and in a less degree, and more gradually, by 
afterwards substituting brick and stone for wooden 
buildings, -which are always in a more or less 
decaying state. But though these reasons have 
eerved heretofore 1o satisfy all, as to the beneficial 
consequences of fires, surely they are altogether 
inadequate as causes for such great and durable 
effects. The mere destruction of all putrescent 
matters in a town at any one time, would certainly 
leave a clear atmosphere, and give strong assu- 
rance of health being improved for a short time 
afterwards: but these matters would be replaced 
probably in the course of a few months, by llie 
residence of as man}' inliaiiitants, and the con- 
tinuance of the same general iiabits — and most 
certainly this cause would lose all its operation by 
the time the town was rebuilt. Eut there is one 
operation produced by the burning of a town, 
which is far more powerful — which in fact is indi- 
rectly the very practice whi»h has been advocated 



— and the effect of which, if given its due weigh 
furnishes proof of the theory set forth, by tiie e: 
perience of every imhealthy town which has su 
fered much Irom fire. If any estimate is made 
the immense quantity of mild calcareous eari 
which is contained in the plastering and brie' 
work of even the wooden dwelling houses of 
town, (and stiil more from those built of masonn 
it must be admitted that all that material beii 
separated, broken down, (soon or late,) and spre; 
by the burning of the houses, and pulling dov 
their ruins, is enough to give a very hea' 
cover of calcareous earth to the whole space 
land burnt over. It is to this oj^eration, in a 1 
greater degree than to all others, that I attribi 
the beneficial effects to health of the burning, 
towns. 

I proceed to the facts derived from the extensi 
body of prairie lands in Alabama which rest 
a substratum of soft limestone, or rich indurat 
clay marl. It was from these remarkable sc 
that the specimens were obtained which were c 
sciibed at page 22. Some of these, indeed 
that have been examined by chemical tests of t 
high and dry prairie lands, contain calcarec 
earth in larger proportions than any soils of ct 
siderable extent in the United States that I hn 
seen or tested. Th.e specimens not containii 
free calcareous earth are of the class of neulij 
soils; and the calcareous earth, which doubtl 
they formerly contained, and from which tliey <\ 
rived their peculiar and valuable qualities, may\ 
supposed only to be concealed by the accumulati 
of vegetable matter, according to the gene 
views submitted in Chapter VII, The more: 
descriptions of the soils of this remarkable and I 
tensive region which will be placed in the Appi 
dix, [at N] render it unnecessary to enlarge mi 
here. It will be sufficient to sum up concisely ' 
fiicts there exhibited — and whi.ch agree with I 
rious other private accounts which have been i 
ceived from undoubted sources of inlbrmat 
The deductions from these facts,, and their acct 
ance with the theory of the operation ofcalcarei 
matter, are matters of reasoning, and as such, 
subnutted to the consideration and judgement 
readers. 

The soil of these prairie lands is very rich, . 
cept the spots Avhere the soft limestone rises toi 
surface, and makes tlie calcareous ingredient ; 
cessive: in the specimen formerly mentioned, ; 
pure calcareous matter formed 59 parts in the 1; 
dred of this "bald prairie" land. The soil ge; 
ally has so little of sand, that nothing but the ' 
careous matter which enters so largely intc 
composition prevents it being so stiff' and intraJ 
ble, that its tillage would be almost impracticct 
yet it is friable and light when dry, and eas t 
till. Eut the superfluous rain water cannot i 
and pass off, as in sandy or other pervious la 
but is held in this close and highly absorbent i 
which throughout winter is thereby made a ( ? 
mire, unfit to prepare for tillage, andscarcel} j i 
ticable to travel over. This water-holding qn l 
of the soil, and the. nearness to the surface ol i 
hard marly substratum, deprive the count r ( 
natural springs and running streams: and bi r 
the important discovery was made that pure vv e 
might be obtained by boring from 300 to 700 c 
through the solid calcareous rock, the inhabit^ 
used the stagnant rain water collected in I 



PART II— PRACTICE. 



67 



iih was very far from pure, or palatable. 
(lor all ihese circumstances, added to the rank 
rliage of niiHions of" acres annually dying and 
honiposing under a southern sun, it might have 
n\ counted on as almost certain, that such a 
xniry would have proved verj^' unhealthy: yet 
; reverse is the fact, and in a remarkable degree, 
le healthiness of this region is so connected with, 
d limited by, the calcareous substratum and soil. 
It it could not escape observation: and they have 
en considered as cause and effect by those who 
d no theory to support, and who did not spend 
bought upon the mode in which was produced 
e important result which they so readily admit- 
'* i. Their testimony therefore is in this respect 
e more valuable, because it cannot be suspected, 
he intelligent author of the extract horn the 
mihern jigriculiurist, which will be given in the 
ppendix [N] is altogether unknown To me — and 
is presumed that he had never heard of this es- 
y, nor of these views of the action of calcareous 
irth. 

Alter deducing the foregoing mass of evidence, 
r which I am indebted to others, it will appear 
fftery unimportant to add what will tbllow from my 
ti5rsonal observation—especially, as the opinion 
liiias been expressed above, that the experience of 
mi ny one individual, on any one farm, or in any one 
lit ication, though continued for ten or twelve years, 
ill lust be very insufRcient as proof of a permanent 
itiange of healthiness, and of the actual causes of 
')■ ich changes. But, as in the absence of more 
Jttriking lacts, and of practical proofs, my own li- 
if lited experience was formerly brought forward — 
it; is proper here to add, that the two autumns that 
li.ave since passed have brought no circumstances 
fio weaken the opinions advanced, and many that 
iiiave served, on the contrary, to strengthen them, 
li On my principal farm, Coggin's Point, the po- 
ition of the homestead was always most incon\"e- 
liently situated, and became the more so as the 
learing and improvement of the poorer and more 
emote parts of the land were extended. For this 
■eason, in addition to others, the farm buildings, 
md negroes' dwellings had been gradually re- 
tmoved, as the expense could be best encountered, 
mtil the old homestead was entirely abandoned in 
[831, for a more eligible location. This would 
prevent the different degree of healthiness found 
here, before and since marling, from presenting 
a fair sta,tement or proof. But ,still, there is no 
doubt of the general results showing a great and 
decided improvement in respect to health — and this 
iwas evident, before as well as since the removal of 
the dwelling place of the slaves. The greater 
number of these had been moved to an interme- 
diate location, (with a view to health) before these 
benefits of marling were either felt, or anticipated 
— where a portion of them remained until within 
the last few years: and the circumstances attend- 
ing this location, furnish ground for the opinion 
maintained, which is nol liable to the objection re- 
ferred to. 

The poor farm (Shellbanks) which was made 
a summer residence for my family in 1828 and the 
two succeeding years, and a permanent dwelling 
place since 1831, was marled to the extent of 120 
acres, including ail the land around the houses, in 
1828; and in a few succeeding years, the space 
marled amounted to more than 300 acres. During 
this time, the yard was covered heavily with marl 



and in 1832, when the approach of Asiatic cho- 
lera caused such alarm, the floor of the cellar of 
the house, (which is very dam]-),) the stable floor, 
and stable yard, were also covered, and every other 
vacant spot. In addition, the plan of collecting 
for manure all putrescent animal matters in a pit 
and covering or mixing them frequently with marl, 
has been pursued for several years, though not 
with as much care and economy as ought to be 
used. In this pit, for experiment as much as for 
l)rofir, the carcasses of animals have been several 
times placed, and preserved (as before) from giving 
out any offensive odor, until their very slow decom- 
position was at an end, merely by the covering of 
marl. The health of the family, during the first 
two or three autumns, was about as good as on 
what are considered healthy places in the tide-wa- 
ter region of Virginia — all of which are more or 
less subject to bilious disorders in autumn, though 
deserving -well (as indeed does the whole country) 
to be considered more than usually exempt from 
all other diseases. We had among the members 
of a large fl\mily, some intermittents, and some 
more severe bilious fevers during that time. But 
there has been a still greater and unlooked for im- 
provement since — and for the last two years, I be- 
lieve that all residing permanently at this place, 
have enjoyed as good health, as could be hoped 
for in any situation in the United States. Among 
the domestic servants and their young children, 
last autumn, there were a few slight agues, (which 
were attributed to some of those acts of impru- 
dence to which negroes are so notoriously addict- 
ed, even if not necessarily exposed,) and which 
were scarcely worth notice, but as exceptions to 
the general healthiness. The land not being then 
tilled, there were no field laborers. Among my 
own familj^ and other white persons who were 
permanent residents, there was not a single ague, 
or the slightest disease to be counted as one of 
climate, o^- proceeding from malaria. But I repeat, 
that many such facts are necessary, and much 
time, and the testiinony of many different persons 
from varioits places to be brought together, before 
the causes can be fully admitted of such myste- 
rious eflects, as disease and its removal. It is to 
he hoped that the facts and deductions here pre- 
sented, hov^^ever defective, may, at least, serve to 
attract the attention of many other and more comr 
petent investigators to this highly important sub- 
ject. 



CHAPTER XX. 

DIRECTIONS FOR DIGGING AND CARTING 
BIARL. 

The great deposite of fossil shells, which cus- 
tom has miscalled marl, is in many places exposed 
to view in most of the lands that border on our 
tide-waters, and on many of their small tributary 
streams. Formerly, it was supposed to be limit- 
ed to such situations: but since its value as a ma- 
nure has caused it to be more noticed, and sought 
after, marl has been found in many other places. 
It is often discovered by the digging of wells, but 
lying so deep, that its value must be more highly 
estimated than at present, before it will be dug for 
manure. From all the scattered evidences of the 



6^ 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



prosence of this dcposite, it may be inferred, that, 
it lies beneatli nearly every part of our country 
between the sea and the granite ridge which forms 
tliJ fulls of all our rivers. It is exposed, where it 
rises, and where cut through by the deep ravines 
of hilly land, and the courses of rivers — and con- 
cealed by its dips, and the usual level surface of 
the country. The rich tracts of neutral soil on 
James River, such as Shirley, Westover, Brandon, 
and Sandy Point, seem to have been formed by 
alluvion, which may be termed recent, compared 
to that of our district in general: and in these, 
no marl has been found, though it is generally 
abundant in the adjacent higher lands.* Fresh- 
water muscle shells are sometimes found in thin 
layers (from a few inches to two feet thick) both 
on those lands, and others — but generally near the 
surface, and always far above the deposite of sea 
shells, found under the high land. These two 
layers of different kinds of shells are separated by 
a thickness of many feet of earth, containing no 
Bhells of any kind. From these appearances, it 
would seem that this tract of country was, for ages, 
the bottom of the sea — then covered by earth — 
then the bottom of a fresh-water lake — and finally 
made dry land. Muscle shells are richer than the 
others, as they contain much gelatinous and en- 
riching animal matter. On this account, the earth 
with which muscle shells are found mixed, is a 
rich black mould. Most persons consider these 
beds of muscle shells as artificially formed by the 
Indians, who are supposed to have collected the 
muscles, for food, and left the shells, where the 
fish were consumed. There are some strong rea- 
sons which may be adduced both to sustain and 
to oppose this opinion. But whatever may be the 
origin of these collections of muscle shells, it does 
not affect their qualities as manure for the soils in 
whicli they are found, or for others to which they 
may be removed. 

Neither the fossil sea shells, nor the earth mixed 
with them are supposed to contain any putrescent 
matter — and this manure has been considered 
throughout this essay as being valuable onhj as 
containing calcareous earth. This, no doubt, is 
the only ingredient of any worth, in the great 
niajority of eases. But sometimes there are other 
ingredients— Avhich must be considered merely as 
exceptions to the general rule. One of these ex- 
ceptions has already been stated, in the descrip- 



*It seems however, from facts learned since the pub- 
lication of the passage above, that marl is, or has been, 
below these alluvial lands, though only at considerable 
depths. This does not contradict the opinion express- 
ed that no marl is to be found in such land. The de- 
posites referred to were of much more ancient forma- 
tion, and have been covered by the very different and 
peculiar bodies of land which" now form not only the 
surface, but a depth as low as the level of the river. 
Benjamin Harrison, Esq., of Berkley, (a tract of such 
land as is above described,) has found on the river 
beach, and du^ deeply into, a body of the earth described 
f)t pa^e 49, which evidently was once full of shells, 
tlioug^i now retaining neither sliells nor any trace of 
carbonate of lime, except some few stony and insulated 
masses. It has also been very recently stated, that 
fossil shells have been found at the level of the river 
at Curie's Neck in Henrico. These are interesting 
facts, which ought to encourage searches for such de- 
posites in every part of the low cjountry, 



tion of gypseous marl, (page 48:) and some oth^ 
have been discovered since the publication of tl 
statement. A kind of earth containing a lai 
proportion of carbonate of magnesia, as well as 
carbonate of lime, has been found in Hanov 
Professor Rogers, of William and Mary Collej' 
has discovered in many of the marls of Lo\ver V 
ginia, some proportion of the "green sand" of ^ 
ologists, or what is itseh" called "marl," (anotl' 
misapplication of that name,) in New Jersey, al 
which has there been found highly valuable j 
manure, though containing nota particle of the ci 
bonate of lime, which constitutes the sole value' 
shells and calcareous manures in general. I! 
however interesting may be the discovery of the 
different ingredients, and however valuable thi 
may prove as manures, still they are not to be cc 
sidered as treated of in this essay under any ger 
ral observations on marl, which are intended to 
applied simply to manure, the only useful ingii 
dient of which, is the carbonate of lime, [Amiei 
dix O.] t 

More than forty kinds of sea shells are found 1 
the beds of marl that I have worked withe 
counting any of very small size. Many kini 
would escape common observation, and still mc 
would require the aid of a magnifying glass to I 
distinguished. Generally the shells are whoj 
but are much broken by digging, and the after opj 
rations. The white shells are rapidly reduce; 
after being mixed with an acid soil — but sonii 
gray kinds, as scallop, and a variety of oyster, at 
so hard as to be very long before they can act 
manure. Some beds, and ihey are generally til 
richest, have scarcely any whole shells, but a; 
formed principally of small broken fragmem 
Of course the value of marl as a manure depemi 
in some measure on what kinds of shells are mo( 
numerous, and their state of division, as Avell ; 
upon the total amount of the calcareous eari 
contained. The last is however by far the nioi 
important criterion of its value. The most e."= 
perienced eye may be much deceived in tl 
strength of marl, and still more gross and dangei 
ous errors would be made by an inexperience 
marler. The strength of a body of marl oftf 
changes materially in sinking a foot in depth — a; 
though the same changes may be expected to 0( 
cur very regularly, in every pit sunk through tl: 
same bed. Whoever uses marl, ought to kno 
how to analyze it, which a little care will enab) 
any one to do with sufficient accuracy. Th 
methods described in Chap. V. for ascertain 
ing the proportions of calcareous earth in soili 
will of course serve for the same purpose wit 
marl. But as more minute directions may be ne 
cessary for many persons who will use this me 
nure, and who ought to be able to judge of its vz 
hie, an additional article on this subject will bl 
given in the Appendix. [See P.] 

For want of attention to this only safe guid(! 
gross errors are often committed, and losses coei' 
finually sustained. By relying on the eye only, j 
have known marl, or rather a calcareous sand," re' 
jected as worthless, and thrown ofi'at considerabL 
cost of labor, to uncover worse marl below, wheri 
whole shells were visible: and on the contrary 
earth has been taken for marl, and used as suchi' 
which Imd no calcareous ingredient whatever 
The best marls for profitable use are generally sue) 
as show the fewest whole shells, or e\ en largi 



1>AKT 11— PKACTICE. 



69 



giuoats — and would be passed by unnoticed 

some cases, or considered only as barren sand, 

• equally worthless clay. But even il' such mis- 

kes as these are avoided, evxry farmer using 

.arl, without analyzing specimens tre(]uently 

id accurately, will lose by applying it in quanti- 

3s either too great or too small. 

ir marl roaches the surliicc any where, it may be 

fost easily found by examining the beds of streams 

assing through the lowest land, or deepest ra- 

nes. A (ew of the smallest particles of shells 

•und there, will prove that tlie siream passes 

u"ough marl somewhere above; and a careful ex- 

raination continued towards the source, will 

;arcely fail to discover where the bed lies. Its 

sual "direction is horizontal, or very little in- 

'ned — and therefore if discovered any where 

long the sides of a narrow vallc}^, it may gene- 

illy be Ibund by digging on the opposite side, or 

isewhere not very distant at the same elevation 

n the hill-side: and it is always nearer the surfiice 

n swells, or convex parts of the hill-side, than 

'■here it retreats and Ibrms hollows. In the more 

ij svel parts of the country, the marl sometimes is 

I, ery near the surface of the lowest land, and yet 

IJ 1 not visible any where. In such situations par- 

ij;cularly, a cheap and convenient auger may be 

5|sed with much advantage in searching for marl: 

P nd it is also useful to try the depth or quality of 

( bed, even when its surface has been found. 

„ 'Iiis tool may be made by welding a straight stem, 

j.alf an inch square and six or seven feet long, to 

common screw auger of about one inch and a 

jialf bore. If it has'been so much worn as to be 

seless as a carpenter's tool, it will serve for boring 

1 earth. A cross-piece for a handle should be 

ixed to slide over the stem, and be fiastened by a 

mall screw at diflerent elevations, as most con- 

■enient. Other pieces may be added to the stem, 

attached by joinls, so as "to bore twelve or more 

eet deep. Dv. W. Cocke of Sussex, to whom I 

im indebted for this simple but useful tool, was 

;nabled by its use to find a very valuable bed of 

narl which was no where visible at the surface, 

ind which he has since been using to great ex- 

ent and advantage. 

By proper examinations marl may be found at 
»r near the surface through a vast extent of the 
Ide-vvaler region of the United States, where it 
las not yet been noticed. But still, under most 
ands it probably does not approach within twenty- 
,ive or thirty feet of the surface, and if reached by 
Ugging, wipoild be covered by water, so as greatly 
.0 increase the difficult}- of obtaining it from such 
lepths. Will these obstacles always debar from 
he benefit of this treasure half the great region 
inder which it lies? I think not: and thougli it 
ivould be ridiculous now to propose such under- 
takings, it will at some future time be found profit- 
ible to descend still greater depths for good marl: 
and shafts will be sunk and the water and marl 
irawn out by horse power, or by steam engines, 
ind the excavation carried on in the same manner 
xs is done in coal mines. 

Our beds of marl are either of a blue, or a yel- 
owish color. The color of the first seems to have 
some connexion with the presence of water, as 
'his kind is always kept wet, by water slowly ooz- 
ing through it. The yellow marl is sometimes 
^yet, but more generally dry, and thprefore easier 



to work.* Unless very \ioor, all mai-ls are suffi- 
ciently firm and solid for the sides of the pit to 
stand, v.-lien dug perpendicularly. 

Where a bed of' marl is dry and not covered by 
much earth, no directions are required for the pit 
work — except it be, that the pit should be long 
enough to allow the carls to descend to the bottom 
(when finislied) and to rise out on a slojie suffi- 
ciently gradual. Tliis will prevent the necessity 
of twice handling the marl, by first throv.angit out 
of the pit, and tlien into the carts, which must be 
done, it the pit is made too short, or its ends too 
steep, for the loads to be drawn out. No machine 
or contrivance will raise marl fi-om the bottom of 
a pit, or a valley, so Avell as a horse-cart — and no 
pains will be lost, in enlarging the pit, and gradu- 
ating the ascent out of it, to attain that object. 

As marl usually shows on a hill-side, but little 
earth has to be moved to uncover the first pit. But 
the next, and ejicli successive cover of earth, will 
be more thick, until it may be necessary to aban- 
don that place and begin o,gain elsewhere. But the 
quantity of covering earth need not be regarded 
as a serious obstacle, if it is not thicker than the 
marl below it. While that is the case, one pit 
completed will receive all the earth thrown from 
an equal space, for commencing another. When 
this proportion of earth is exceeded, it is necessary 
to carry it farther, by either carts or scrapers, and 
the labor is greatly increased. 

For any extensive operation, it is much cheaper 
to take ofl" a cover of earth, twelve feet thick, to ob- 
tain marl of equal depth, than if both the covering 
earth and marl were only three i'eet each. Wheth- 
er the cover be thick or thin, two parts of the op- 
eration are equally troublesome, viz. to take ofi' 
the mat of roots, and perhaps some large trees on 
the surface soil, and to clean ofi' the surtiace of the 
marl, which is sometimes very irregular. The 
greater part of the thickest cover would be much 
easier to work. But the most important advan- 
tage in taking ofi' earth of ten or more feet in 
thickness, is saving digging, by causing the earth 
to come down by its own weight. If time can be 
allowed to aid this operation,"the driest earth will 
mostly fliU, by being repeatedly undermined a 
little. But this is greatly facilitated by the oozing 
water, which generally fills the earth lying imme- 
diately on beds of wet marl. In uncovering a bed 
of this description, where the marl was to be dug 
fourteen feet, and ten to twelve feet of earth to re- 
move, my labor was made ten-fold heavier, by dig- 
ging altogether. The surface bore living trees, 
and was Yull of roots — there was enough stone to 



*The blue color of marl is not caused by merely 
the presence of water, or there would be no wet yel- 
low marl. When both blue and yellow marl are seen 
in the same bed, the blue is always at bottom — and the 
line of division between the colors is well defined, and 
there is seen no gradual change of one to the other. 
I have lately observed (in 1834) that as intense and 
perfect a blue color as marl has ever been known to 
have, was given to what had been dry yellow marl, by 
its being used as a thick flooring for a stable yard, and 
kept covered with the rotting manure, and penetrated 
by its liquid oozings, which the marl was there placed 
!o save. It may "be inferred from this fact, that blue 
marls have received their color from some vegetable 
extract or other putrescent matter, dissolved in the 
water passing through the bed. 



70 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



keep the edges of the grubbing hoes battered — 
and small springs and oozing water came out 
every where, after digging a tew ieet deep. A 
considerable part of the earth \vas a tough, sticky 
clay, Icept wet throughout, and which it was equal- 
ly difFiLult to get on the shovels, and to get rid 
of. Some years alter, another pit was uncovered 
on the same bed, and under like circumstances, 
except that the tune was the last of summer, and 
there was less water oozing through the earth. 
This digging was begun at the lowest part of the 
earth, which was a layer of sand, kept quite wet 
by the water oozing through it. With gravel 
shovels, this was easily cut under from one to two 
feet along the whole length of the old pit — and as 
fast as was desirable, the upper earth, thus under- 
mined, lell into the old pit: and afterwards, when 
that did not take place of itseltj the fallen earth 
was easily thrown there by shovels. As the earth 
fell separated into small but compact masses, it 
was not much atl'ected by the water, even when it 
remained through the night before being shoveled 
away. No digging was required, except this con- 
tinued shoveling out the lowest sand stratum, and 
whether clay, or stones, or roots, were mixed with 
the falling earth, they were easy to throw off. The 
numerous roots which were so troublesome in the 
former operation, were now an advantage, as they 
supported the earth sufficiently to let it fall only 
gradually and safely; and before tlie roots fell, 
they were almostclear of earth. The whole body of 
earth, notwithstandingall its difficulties, was moved 
ofl as easily as the driestcould have been by digging 
altogether. 

In working a pit of wet marl, no pains should 
be spared to drain it as effectually as possible. 
Very few beds are penetrated by veins of running 
water, which would deserve the name of springs 
— but water oozes very slowly through every part 
of wet marl, and bold springs often burst out im- 
mediately over its surface. Alter the form of the 
pit, and situation of the road are determined, a ditch 
to receive and draw off all the water, should be 
commenced down the valley, as low as the bottom 
of the pit is expected to be, and opened up to the 
work, deepening as it extends, so as to keep the 
bottom of the ditch on the same level with the 
bottom of the marl. It may be cheaper, and will 
serve as well, to deepen this ditch as the deepen- 
ing of the pit proceeds. After the marl is uncover- 
ed the full size intended for the pit, (which ought 
to be large enough for carts to turn about on,) a 
little drain of four or five inches wide, and as ma- 
ny deep, (or the size made by the grubbing hoe 
used to cut it,) should be carried all around to in- 
tercept th.e surface or spring water, and conduct it 
to tlie main drain. The marl will now be dry 
enough ibr the caris to be brought on and loaded. 
But as the digging proceeds, oozing water will 
collect slowly; and aided by the wheels of loaded 
carts, the surface of the firmest marl would soon 
be rendered a puddle, and then quagmire. This 
may easily be prevented by the inclination of the 
surface. The first course "dug off, should be much 
the deepest next the surface drain, (leaving a mar- 
gin of a few inches of firm marl, as a bank to keep 
in the stream) so that the digging shall be the 
lowest around the outside, and gradually rise to 
the middle of the area. Whatever water may 
find hs way within the work, whether from oozing, 
rain, or accidental burstings of the little surlace 



drain, will run to the outside, the dip of whic 
should lead to the lower main drain. After th' 
Ibrm is given to the surlace of the area, very littl 
attention is required to preserve it; for if the sr,( 
cessive courses are dug of equal depth from side i 
side, the previous dip will not be altered. Tli 
sides or walls of the pit should be cut somethin 
without the perpendicular, so that the pit is mad 
one or two feet wider at bottom than top. Th 
usual firm texture will prevent any danger froi 
this overhanging shape, and several advantagt 
will be gained from it. It gives more space ti 
work — prevents the wheels running on the lowe 
and wettest parts — allows more earth to be dii 
posed of, in opening for the next pit — aiad preven 
that earth tumbling into the next digging, \Thel 
the separating wall of marl is cut away. Thi 
upper drain of the pit, which talces the surfaci 
water, will hang over the one below, kept for th! 
oozing water. The former remains unaUere) 
throughout the job, and may still convey the strean 
when six feet above the heads of the laborers il 
the pit. The lower drain of course sinks wit 
the digging. Should the pit be dug deeper tha; 
the level of the receiving ditch can be sunk, a wai 
should be left between, and the remainder of thl 
oozing A\atcr must be conducted to a little basi' 
near the wall, and thence be baled or pumped intii 
the receiving ditch. The passage fijr the carts 1 
ascend from the pit should be kept on a suitabli 
slope — and the marl forming that slope may H 
cut out in small pits, alter the balance has beet 
completed. 

If the marl is so situated that carts cannot 11 
driven as low as the bottom, then the area muii' 
be cut out in small pits, beginning at the back pari 
and extending as they proceed, towards the roa; 
leading out of the pit. 

On high and broken land, marl is generalE 
found at the bottom of ravines, and separated froi 
the field where it is to be carried, by a high am 
steep hill-side. The difficulty of cutting roads ' 
such situations, is much less than any inexpe 
rienced person would suppose. We cannot gc 
rid of any of the actual elevation — but the ascei 
ma}^ be made as gradual as is desired, by a propo 
location of the road. The intended course mu; 
be laid off by the eye, and the upper side of th 
road marked. If it passes through woods, it wi' 
be necessary to use grubbing hoes for the digginii 
With these, begin at the distance of four or fii 
feet below the marked line, and dig horizontalll 
onward to it. That earth is to be pulled back will 
broad hoes, and laid over a width of three or foD 
feet below the place from which it was tukei 



'I'hus the upper side of the road is formed by cui 
ting down, and the lower side by filling up", wiij 
the earth taken ii'om above. 



fAtil H— FKACTICE. 



71 



The annexed figure will prevent these directions 
ciiig misunderstood. The straigjit line from a to 
ic I ) resents ihc original slope ot' the hill-side ol" 
liicli ihe whole ligure is a section. The upper 
i;il of the dotted j)urt of the line is in the mark 
, )!■ ki} ing otl" the upper side of Uie road. The up- 
:ij|cr triangle is a section of the earth dug out of the 
n .ill-side, and the lower triangle, of the part formed 
i fY its removal. The horizontal line is the level 
i^ f the road Ibrmed by cutting in on the upper, and 
15 lUing up on the lower side. After shaping the 
>"l oad rouglily, the deficiencies will be seen and may 
i( le coiTCcted in the finishing work, by deepening 
ili ome ))!accs and filling up otherg, so as to gradu- 
m tte the whole properly. A width of eight or nine 
lie eet of firm road, will be sufficient for carting marl. 
rii Jf the land through which the road is to be cut is 
at rot very steep, and is tree from trees and roots, 
tl he operation may be made much cheaper by using 
ij he plough. The first Jlirrow should be run along 
ai .he line of the lower side of the intended road, and 
ii iUrned down hill: the plough then returns empty, 
it lO carry a second lurrow by the first. In this 
la nanner it proceeds — cutting deeply, and throwing 
!a|he slices far, (both of which are easily done on a 
liill-side,) vmtil rather more than the required 
si width is ploughed. The ploughman then begins 
It again over his first furrow, and ploughs the whole 
1 3ver as at first — and this course is repeated per- 
il haps once or twice more, until enough earth is cut 
1) from the upper and put on the lower side of the road. 
ei After the first jjjoughing, broad hoes should aid 
and complete the work, by pulling down the earth 
li trom the high to the low side, and particularly in 
Ii those places where the hill-side is steepest. After 
rithe proper shape is given, carts, at first empty, and 
li then with light loads, should be driven over every 
part ot" the surface of the road, until it is firm. If 
a heavy rain should liill before it has been thus 
trodden, the road would be rendered useless for a 
considerable time. 

Tumbril carts drawn by a single horse or mule, 
are most convenient for conveying marl short dis- 
tances. Every part of the cart should be light, 
and the body should be so small as only to hold 
the load it is intended to carry, without a tail-board. 
This plan enables the drivers to measure every 



load, which advantage will be found on trial much 
more important than would at first be supposed. 
Il" carts of common size are used, the careless la- 
borers will generally load too lightly— yet some- 
times will injure the liorse by puttiiiij in a load 
much too heavy. The snuill-sized "cart-bodies 
prevent both these fiaults. The load cannot be 
made much too heavy — and if too light, the far- 
mer can detect it at a glance. AVhere there is a 
hill to ascend, five heaped bushels of wet marl is 
a surticient load lor a horse. If the marl is diy, or 
the road level, six bushels may be put in the same 
carts, by using tail-boards. 

Strong laborers are required in the pit for dig- 
ging and loading: but bojs who are too email lor 
any other regular farm labor, are sufficient to 
drive the carts. Horses or mules kept at this work 
soon become so tractable, that very little strength 
or skill is required to drive them. 

All these hints and expedients, or perhaps bet- 
ter plans, would occur to most persons befi)re they 
are long engaged in marling. Still these direc- 
tions may help to smooth the obstructions in the 
way of the inexperienced — and they will not be 
entirely useless, if they serve to prevent even small 
losses of time and labor. 

My task is at last completed. Whether I shall 
be able to pursuade my countrymen to prize the 
treasures, and seize the profits which are within 
their reach, or whether my testimony and argu- 
ments shall be fruitless, soon or late, a time must 
arrive Avhen my expectations will be realized. The 
use of calcareous manures is destined to change 
a large portion of the soil of Lower Virginia from 
barreimess to fertility — which, added to tlie advan- 
tages we already possess — our navigable waters 
and convenient markets, the facility of tilling our 
lands, and the choice of crops offered by our cli- 
mate — will all concur to increase len-fbld the pre- 
sent value of our land, and produce more farming 
profit than has been tbuiid elsewhere on soils far 
more favored by nature. Population, wealth, and 
learning, will keep pace with the improvement of 
the soil — and we, or our children, will have reason 
to rejoice, not only as farmers, but as Virginians, 
and as patriots. 



AFFMMBIX 



P€irt III, 



Most of ihe articles which will be given in this 
Appendix, are deemed irajjortant to the parts oi 
the Kssay to which they reier, as furnishing more 
lull explanation-, or proof", of positions there main- 
tained: but they are not absolutely essential to the 
text — and have therefore been thrown into this 
place and form, both for convenient reierence, and 
to avoid interrupting the train of argument, or the 
connexion of facts, to those readers who may not 
need views so extended. But, though a regu- 
lar recurrence to these notes may not be ne- 
cessary as they are referred to in the Ibregoing 
text — and generally had better be postponed for 
an alter and separate reading — still it is believed 
that most of them will be found eh her useful or in- 
teresting to those who may have read with appro- 
bation what precedes them. This form will be 
convenient both to those who may choose to pass 
over, as superfluous, any particular portions, and 
and to attract to these notes the attention of other 
readers, who may wantthe more fuUstatements and 
prools olfered. 



[NOTE A. Page 9.] 

THE DIFFERKNT IMPKOPER SIGNIFICATIONS 
OF TUIQ TEliai "calcareous EARTH." 

The definition of calcareous earth, which con- 
fines that term to the carbonate of lime, is certainly 
liable to objections, but less so than any other 
mode of arrangement. It may at first seem ab- 
surd to consider as one of the three principal 
earths which compose soils, one only of the many 
combinations of lime, rather than either pure lime 
alone, or lime in all its combinations. One or the 
other of these significations is adopted by the 
highest authorities, when the calcareous ingre- 
dients of soils are described — and in either sense, 
the use of this term is more contbrniable with 
scientific arrangement, than mine. Yet much in- 
convenience is caused by thus applying the term 
calcareous earth. If applied to /me, it is to a sub- 
.stance which is never found existing naturallj^, and 
which will always be considered by most persons 
as the product oi" the artificial process of calcina- 
tion, and as having no more part in the composi- 
tion of natural soils, than the manures obtained 
fi-om oil-cake, or jioimded bones. It is equally 
im|)ropcr to include under the same general term 
all the combinations of lime with the fifty or sixty 
various acids. Two of these, the sulphate, and 
the phosphate of lime, are known as valuable 
manures; but they exist naturally in soils in such 
minute quantities, and so rarely, as not to deserve 
to be consiilercd as important ingredients. A sub- 
secjuent part of this essay will show why the oxa- 



late of lime is also supposed to be highly valuabl 
as a manure, and lar more abundant. Man 
other salts of lime are known to chemists: bt 
their several qualities, as afiecting soils, are entire 
ly unknown — i'lnd their quantities are too small 
and their presence too rare, to require considerc 
lion. If all the numerous difierent combination 
of lime, having perhaps as many various and uii 
known properties, had not been excluded by m 
definition of calcareous earth, continual exceptioni 
would have been necessary, to avoid stating wht 
was not meant. The carbonate of lime, to whici 
I have confined that term, though only one 
many existing combinations, yet in quantity am 
in importance, as an ingredient of soils, as well a; 
a part of the known portion of the globe, very fyi 
exceeds all the others. 

But even it calcareous earth, as defined 
limited, is admitted to be the substance which it i 
proper to consider as one oi" the three earths 
agriculture, still there are objections to its naniti 
which I would gladly avoid. However strict! 
defined, many readers will attach to terms sue. 
meanings as they had previously understood: an. 
the word calcareous has been so loosely, and 
differently applied in common language, and 
agriculture, that much confusion may attend ili 
use. Any thing "partaidng oi' the nature of lime: 
is "calcareous," according to Walker's Dictionary 
Lord Kames limits the term to pure lime* — Davy; 
and Sinclair,! include under it pure lime and 
its combinations — and Kirwan,|| Rozier,1[ am 
Young,§ whose example I have ipUovved, confia 
the name calcareous earth to the carbonate t 
lime. Nor can any other term be substitutei 
without producing other difficulties. Carbonate c 
lime would be precise, and it means exactly ttii 
same chemical substance: but there are insuperai 
ble objections to the frequent use of chemicE 
names in a work addressed to ordinary readers 
Chalk, or shells, or mild lime, (or what had beei 
quicklime, but which fiom exjjosurc to the air, hai 
again become carbonated,) all these are the sarai 
chemical substance — but none of these nam© 
would serve, because each would be supposed t 
mean such certain form or appearance of calcai 
reous earth, as they usually express. .If I coul 
hope to revive an obsolete term, and with si 



*Geiitleman Farmer, page 2G4, (2d Edin. Ed.) 
tAgr. Chem. page 223, (Phil. Ed. of 1821.) 

JCode of Agriculture, page 134, (Hartford Ec 
1818.) 

l|Kirwan on Manures, Chap. 1. 

•ii" Tcrres" — Cours Completd'AgricuIlure Pratique. 

^Young's Essay on Manures, Chap. 3. 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



73 



loilification establish its use for this purpose, 1 
v'ould call this earth ra/x — and fi-om it derive calx- 
ng, to signify the application of'caicareous eartli, 
II any form, as manure. A general and definite 
I'lin tor this operation is much wanting. Liming, 
narling, applying drawn ashes, or the rubhish oi 
lid buildings, chalk, or limestone gravel — all these 
iperalions are in part, and some of them entirely, 
hat manuring that I would thus call calxing. Uut 
)ecause their names are different, so are their el- 
ects generally considered — not only in those re- 
ipects where differences really exist, but in those 
Jvhere they are precisely alike. 



[NOTE B. Page 11.] 

THE NAMES GIVEN TO SOILS BY WRITEUS ON 
AGRICULTURE OFTEN INCORRECT ANU 
CONTRADICTORY. 

Nothing is more wanting in the science of ag- 
riculture, than a correct nomenclature of soils, by 
'j which the characters might be learned from the 
names — and nothing has hitherto seemed less at- 
tainable. The modes of classing and naming 
soils, used by scientific authors, are not only dif- 
ferent, and opposed to each other — but each one 
of them is quite unfit to serve the purpose intended. 
As to the crowd of inferior writers, it is enough to 
say that their terms are not fixed by any rule — 
convey no precise meaning, and are worth not 
much more than those in common use among 
ourselves, and other practical cultivators, which 
often vary in their meaning within forty miles of 
distance. To enable us to judge of the fitness of 
the names given to soils by others, let us examine 
those applied by ourselves. We generally de- 
scribe soils by making a mental comparison with 
those we are most accustomed to; and though 
such a description is understood well enough 
through a particular district, it may have quite a 
different meaning elsewhere. What are called 
clay or stiff soils in Sussex and Southampton, 
would be considered sandy or light soils in 
Goochland — merely because almost every acre of 
land in the former counties is sandy, and in the 
latter, clays are nearly as abundant. 

The conflict of definitions, and consequent con- 
fusion of terms, cannot be more plainly set forth, 
than by quoting from some of the highest authori- 
ties, the various and contradictory explanations of 
a term, which is so common, that it is used by 
every one who writes or speaks of soils — and 
Avhich, in some one or other sense, each writer 
probably considered as forming a very large, if not 
the greatest proportion of the cuUivated soils of 
his country, and of the world. 

"Loam denotes any soil moderately cohesive, 
*' and more so than loose chalk. By the author of 
" the Body of Agriculture, it is said to be a day 
" mixed ivith sand.'''' \Kirwan on Manures — 
Chap. 1.] 

"Loafii, or that species of artificial soil, into which 
" the others are generally brought by the course 
*' of long cultivation." — "Where a soil is mode- 
" rately cohesive, less tenacious than clay, and 
" more so than sand, it is known by the name of 
" loam. From its frequency, there is reason to 
*' suppose that in some cases it might be called an 
10 



" original soil." [Sinclair's Code of j^gricuUure 
— Chap. L] 

"The word loam should be limited to soils con- 
" taining at least one-third of imjtalpable earthy 
" matter, copiously effervescing ivith acids." [Da- 
vy's j^gricuUural Chemistry — Lecture 4.] Ac- 
cording to this definition by the mo8t scientific 
writer and highest authority in cJiemical agricul- 
ture, if we except the small portion of shelly land, 
there is certainly not an acre of natural loam be- 
tween the sea coast of Virginia and the Blue 
Ridge Mountains — and very few, if any, even 
in the limestone region. 

" By loam is meant flHj/ o/" //te earths combined 
" with decayed animal or vegetable matter.'' [Ap- 
pendix to j/gr. Chem. by George Sinclair.'} 

"Loam— /ai unctuous earth — marl." [John- 
son's Dictionary, 8vo. Ed., and also Walker's.'] 

" Loam may be considered a clay of loose or 
" friable consistency, mixed with m{ca or isinglass, 
" and iron ochre." [Editor of jJmerican Farmer, 
Vd. Ill, page 320.] 



[NOTE C. Page 13.] 

SOME OF THE EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON AG- 
RICULTURAL PROFITS. 

The cultivators of Eastern Virginia derive a 
portion of their income from a source quite distinct 
from their tillage — and which, though it oflen 
forces them to persist in their profitless farming, 
yet also, in some measure, conceals, and is ge- 
nerally supposed to compensate lor its losses. 
This source of income is, the breeding and selling 
of slaves — of which, (though the discussion of this 
point will not be undertaken here,) I cannot concur 
in the general opinion that it is also a source 
of profit. 

It is not meant to convey the idea that any per- 
son undertakes as a regular business the' breeding 
of slaves with a view to their sale: but whether it 
is intended or not, all of us, without exception, are 
acting some part in aid of a general system, which 
taken altogether, is precisely what I have named. 
No man is so inhuman asto breed and raise slaves, 
to sell off' a certain proportion regularly, as a west- 
ern drover does with his herds of cattle. But sooner 
or later the general result is the same. Sales may 
be made voluntarily, or by the sheriif— they may 
be met by the first owner, or delayed until the suc- 
cession of his heirs— or the misfortune of being 
sold may fall on one parcel of slaves, instead of 
another: but all these are but different ways of ar- 
riving at the same general and inevitable result. 
With plenty of wholesome, though coarse food, 
and under such mild treatment as our slaves usu- 
ally ex|)erience, they have every inducement and 
liiciiity to increase their numbers with all possible 
rafiidity, without any opposing check, either pru- 
dential, moral, or |)hysical. These several checks 
to the increase of population operate more or less 
on all free persons, whether rich or poor — and 
slaves, situated as ours are, perhaps are placed in 
the only possible circumstances, in which no re- 
straint whatever prevents the propagation and in- 
crease of the race. From the general exist- 
ence of this state of circumstances, the particular 
effects may be naturally deduced: and facts com- 
pletely accord with what those circumstances pro- 
mise. A gang of slaves on a farm \vill ofien in- 



7T 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



crease to four times their original number, in thirty 
or forty years. If a farmer is only able to feed 
and maintain his slaves, tlicir increase in value 
may double the whole of liiscapital originally vested 
in (arming, before he closes the term of an ordinary 
lile. But lew farms are able to support lliis increas- 
ing expense, and also furnish the necessarj^ supplies 
to the family of the owner — whence very manj' 
owners of large estates in lands and negroes, are 
throughout their lives too poor to enjoy the com- 
iorts of wealth, or to encounter the expenses ne- 
cessary to improve their unprofitable farming. A 
man so situated, may be said to be a slave to his 
own slaves. If the owner is industrious and fru- 
gal, he may be able to support the increasing num- 
ber of his slaves, and to bequeath them undimin- 
ished to his children. But the income of few per- 
sons increases as fast as their .slaves — and if not, 
the consequence must be, that some of them will 
be sold, that the others may be supported; and the 
sale of more is perhaps ailcnvards compelled, to 
pay debts incurred in striving to put off that dread- 
ed alternative. The slave first almost starves his 
master, and at last, is eaten by him — at least he is 
exchanged for his value in food. The sale of 
slaves is always a severe trial to their owner. Ob 
stacles are opposed to it, not only by sentiments of 
humanity, and of regard for those who have pass- 
ed their lives in his service — but every feeling he 
has of false shame comes to aid; and such sales 
are generally postponed, until compelled by credit- 
ors, and are carried into effect by the sheriff, or by 
the administrator of the debtor. But when the 
Bale finally takes place, its magnitude makes up 
for all previous delays. Do what we will, the sur- 
plus slaves 7nust be sent out of a country which is 
not able 1o feed them: and these causes continue to 
supply the immense numbers that are annually 
sold and carried away from Lower Virginia, with- 
out even producing the political benefit of lessen- 
ing the actual number remaining. Nothing can 
check this forced emigration of blacks, and the vol- 
untary emigration of whites, except increased pro- 
duction of food, obtained by enriching our lands, 
and the consequent increase of farming profits. 
No effect will more certainly follow its cause than 
this — that whenever our land is so improved as to 
produce double its present supply of food, it will also 
have, and will retain, double its present amount of 
population. The imj)roving farmer who adds one 
hundred bushels of corn to the previous product of 
his country, eflectually adds al^^o to its population, 
as many persons as his increase of product will 
feed. 



[NOTE D. Page 17.] 

OPINIONS THAT SOILS ARE GENERALLY CAL- 
CAREOUS. 

It was asserted that the inference to be drawn 
from all the descriptions of soils, in the most es- 
teemed treatises on agriculture, is that calcareous 
earth is a very general, if not a universal ingre- 
dient. This assertion can be proved beyond all 
doubt, from European authors: but it would re- 
quire many and long extracts, too bulky to include 
here, and which cannot be fairly abridged, or ex- 
hibilod by a lew cxamj)les. No author says direct- 



ly that calcareous earth is present in all soils — bu 
its being always named as one of the ingredient 
of" soils in general, and no cases of its absolute de 
ficiency being direcdy staled, amount 1o the decUi 
ration "that calcareous earth is very rarely, if ev( 
entirely wanting in any soil. We may find cnoug! 
directions to apply calcareous manures to soils tha 
are deficient in that ingredient: but that deficiency^ 
seems to be not spoken of as absolute, but relativ' 
to other soils more abundantly supplied. In th' 
same manner, they direct clay,'or sand, to be user 
as manure for soils very deficient in one or tb 
other of those earths— but without meaning tha 
any soil under cultivation, can be found entirel; 
destitute of sand, or of clay. My proofs from ge' 
neral treatises, would therefore be generally indii 
rect — and the quotations necessary to exhibit themi 
would show what had not been said, rather than 
what had — that they did not assert the absence o-i 
calcareous earth, instead of directly asserting 
universal presence. Extracts for this purposei 
however satisfactory, would necessarily be too vo 
luminous, and it is well that they can be dispcnsec 
with. Better proo.f, because it is direct, and morn 
concise, will be furnished by quoting the opinionn 
of a few agriculturists of our own country, wh<i 
were extensively acquainted with European au 
thors, and have evidently drawn tlieir opinioni 
from those sources. These quotations will no^' 
only show conclusively, that their authors consider 
the received European doctrine to be that all soil 1 
are more or less calcareous — but also, that the\: 
apply the same general character to the soil 
the United States, without expressing a doubt or, 
naming an exception. 

1st. From a "Treatise on Agriculture," (ass' 
cribed to General Armstrong,) published in tht 
American Farmer. [ Vol. I. page 153.] 

''■ Of six or eight substances, which chemistif 
" have denominated earths, four arc widely ami 
" ahvndantlfi diffused, and form the crust of ou:( 
" globe. These are silica, alumina, lime, ano 
" magnesia." — "In a pure or isolated state, thesti 
" earths are wholly unproductive; but when de:| 
" composed and mixed, and to this mixture isi 
" added the residuum of dead animal or vegetabM 
" matter, they become fertile, and take the ge- 
" neral name of soils, and are again denominatet 
" after the earth that most abounds in their comi 
" position respectively. — " 

2. Address of R. H. Rose to the Agricultural 
Society of Susquehanna, [jim. Far. Vol. 11. p- 
101.] ] 

" Geologists suppose our earth to have beer 
" masses of rock of various kinds, but principally 
" silicious, aluminous, calcareous, and magnesiai 
" — from the gradual attrition, decay, and mixtun 
" of which, together with an addition of vege- 
" table and animal matter, is formed the soil; anc' 
" this is called sandy, clayey, calcareous, or mag-: 
" nesian, according as the particular primitive mai 
" terial preponderates in its formation." 

3. Address of Robert Smith to the Maryland 
Agricultural Society. \_Am. Far. Vol. IIl.j)'.22B.' 

"■ The soils of our country are in generai 

"clay, sand, gravel, clayey loam, sandy loam. 
" and gravelly loam. Clay, sand, and gravel, 
"need no description, &c." — ^^ Clayey loam is ? 
" compound soil, consisting of clay, and sand oi 
" gravel, with a mixture of^ calcareous matter, and 
" in which clay is predominant. Sandy, or gra- 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



75 



vclly loam, is a compound soil, consisting of 
sand or gravel, and clay, with a mixture of cal 
careous matter^ and in which sand or gravel is 
predominant." 

The first two extracts merely state the geologi- 
\1 theory of the formation of soils, which is re- 
;ivcd as correct hy the most eminent agricultu- 
sts of Europe. How far it may be supi'orted or 
oposod by the aptual constitution, and number ol' 
'igredicnls of European soils, is not for me to 
jcide, nor is the consideration necessary to my 
ibject. But the adoption of this general theory, 
y American writers, without excepting Ameri- 
m soils, is an indirect, but complete application 
I them, of the same character and composition, 
he writer last quoted, states positively that the 
:irious loams, (which comprise at least ninetcen- 
ventieths of our soils, and I presume also of the 
)ils of Maryland,) contain calcareous matter, 
'he expression of this opinion by Mr. Smith, is 
ifficient to prove that such was the fair and plain 
sduclion from his general reading on agriculture, 
om which source only could his opinions have 
sen derived. If the soils of Maryland are not 
ery unlike those of Virginia, I will venture to as- 
5rt, that not one in a thousand of all the clayey, 
.mdy, and gravelly loams, contains the smallest 
Lroportion of carhonale of lime — and that not a 
,ngle sjjecimen of calcareous soil can be found, 
etwei'in the fails of the rivers, and the most eas- 
u'n body of limestone. 

Eut ihougli the direct testimony of European 
uthors, (as cited in the essay,) concurs with the 
idirect proois referred to in this note, to induce 
le belief that soils are very rarely destitute of 
alcareoiis earth, yet statements may be found of 
anie pariicular soils being considered of that cha- 
icter. These statements, even if presented by 
le authors of general treatises, would only seem 
) present exceptions to their general rule of the 
Imost universal difiusion of calcareous earth in 
oil. But so far as I know, no such exceptions j ccssarv 
re named in the descriptions of soils in anygone- j to the c 
il treatise, and therefore have not 
iiecf in contradicting or nio,lii\ inn; th 
n tills subject. It is in t!n.< (li\.-,;i! ii;.p, of scilr; oJ 
articular farms, or districts, tliat soni;' such s'a'e- 
/lents arc made: and even il" no such examples 
lad been mentioned, they would not have been 
eedcil to prove the existence, in Europe, of some 
oils like most of ours, destitute of calcareous 
artli. These facts do not oppose my argument. I 
lave not asserted, (nor believed, since I have en- 
eavored to investigate this subject,) that there 
vere not soils, and perhaps many extensive ilis- 
ricts, containing no calcareous earth. My argu- 
nent merely maintains that these facts would not 
le inferred, but the contrary', by any general and 
ursory reader of the agricultural treatises of Eu- 
ope, that Vv'e are best acquainted with. It has 
lot been my purpose to inquire as to the existence, 
■r extent, of soils of this kind in Europe. Eut 
udging from the indirect testimony furnished by 
iccounts of the mineral and vegetable produc- 
ioris in general descriptions of different countries, 
wovdd supjinse that soils having no calcareous 
■arth were oilcn found in Scotland and the north- 
•rn part of {Jermanj-, and that they wcrecorapar- 
I'.ively rare in England and France. 



le slightest I —and s 
r tesiinioiiv ' ^■^ '' ' ■' 



[NOTE E. Page 18.] 

DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYZING MARL. AND 
OTIIKR CALCAREOUS SUBSTANCES. 

It is unnecessary here to describe Professor 
Davy's apparatus tor measuring the carbonic acid 
gas evolved from any given quantity of calcareous 
soil, (and of course of marl,) and thus ascertain- 
ing the proportion of the carbonate of lime con- 
tained. Without a plate, the description could 
not be made plain — and the expense of the appa- 
ratus would be a sufficient prohibition of the pur- 
chase to every reader who cannot easily refer to 
the original description in the Elements of Agri- 
cultural Chemistry. 

Prot: W. B. Rogers, has recently invented, and 
has used successfully, a much cheaper apparatus, 
and which for trials ofvery small quauthies of marl, 
is also much more correct. His description of this 
apparatus will be copied from the Farmers' Re- 
gister, Vol. II. p. 364. 

"The apparatus which I am about to describe, is 
intended to give greater accuracy and facility to 
the usual process tor determining the quantity of 
cirbonic acid in marl, or in an}- of the carbonates. 
By tlie common method, the two vessels contain- 
ing severally the marl and the muriatic acid are 
placed in one of the scales of a delicate balance, 
and there counterpoised by weights put into the 
other scale. The acid is then poured u)ion the 
marl, and aficr all the carbonic acid has been dis- 
charged, the equilibrium is restored by addinor 
V.' eights to one, or abstracting them li'om the other 
scale. In princij)le, this method is entirely free 
from objoclion: but as usually conducted, it cannot 
be relied upon as accurate. This want of preci- 
sion arises, in the first place, from the cscajie of 
arjuenus vai:;or, along with the carbonic acid which 
is disriiargod, thus making a greater weight ne- 
ivsioring the equi!il)riiim, than is due 
tity of carbonic acid w liicl! has escaped 



y, from the grcalcr weight of the 
\( ^■' ■ :■ r.iiiiiiing the marl and acid impairing 
!! ! ' \\- of the balance, and thus rendering 

i! iii'.j' '. -W)]-- to estimate the carbonic acid to small 
iiaclions of a grain. The first of these objections 
luis long been obviated in the c!,eniic,al analysis 
of the carbonates, by causing the gas, us it escapes, 
to pass through a tube containing dried muriate of 
lime; and the latter has been in some measure re- 
moved, by a contrivance of tlie great practicaJ 
chemist Rose; which, however, as it is inconve- 
nient and uncertain in the manipulation, I shall not 
here describe. 

"The apparatus which I have devised, is, I flunk, 
fi-ee from these objections, and enables the opera- 
tor to proceed with great accuracy and despatch. 
It has the advantage of being very easily con- 
structed, and of being used with a balance that 
can be procured at a very moderate price. More- 
over, the quantity of marl which is necessary for 
experiment in no case exceeding ten grains, spe- 
cimens tor analysis may very easily be tijrwardcd 
by letter. 

"The balance which I use with this apparatus, 
is a small goldsmilh's balance— such as may be 
procured Cor a tew dollars in New Yorl<. It is very 
iight, and turns, when unloaded, with the T^„thp^ 
a o-raia. My set oJ~' weights obtained from Mil- 



76 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



linijton in Philadelphia, extends to tenths and hun- 
dredths or the grain. 

"Tiie accompanying figure Avill convey a distinct 
id?a of tho apparatus and mode of using it. One 
of tiie scales is removed to admit of suspending 
the apparatus by a double thread over the liook of 
the beam. The other is made of somelhing light, 
as a piece of card. In this way all unnecessary 
weight upon the beam is avoided, and its sensi- 
bility preserved. 




"A, is a light bulb of glass, blown very tliin from 
a common ])iece of tube, and about oni' inch in 
diameter. A corkisfitted to its moulh. mid tin-' ugh 
this, the tapered ends of the bent gla. .-: tulics. B 
and C, are passed air tight; the extremity of the 
latter extending some distance into the vessel. The 
tube B, through which the gas escapes, is filled 
with tragments of muriate of lime. The tube (', 
which contains the muriatic acid, is furnished with 
alight piston of cork or cotton, in the centre ol 
which is fixed a rod or handle, made of a small 
stiff straw. This instrument, when charged with 
marl and acid, does not v/eigh more than 120 
grains. The whole load of the beam is tiiere'bre 
240 grains, and it is still sensible to the youth of a 
grain. 

"The mode of proceeding with the analysis is as 
follows. Five or ten grains of the finely powdered 
marl is introduced into the vessel A, and then two 
or three drops of water added, to ass.'sL the diffu- 
sion of the acid. The small end of the tube C, 
now removed from the cork, is dipped into some 
muriatic acid in a wine glass, and the piston 
moved backwards and forwards until the necessary 
quantity of acid has been drawn in. The tube is 
then replaced in the cork, and in this state the in- 
strument is counlerjioisfd by weights in the oppo- 
site scale. The jiiston being tlien gradually forced 
in, the a^id is injected, drop by drop, ujjonthe marl, 
and the 'gas escapes by the tube JS, depositing the 
aqueous vapor in its passage, on the nuu'iate of 
lime. Allowing the apparatus to rest until the 
gas has entirely escaped, and the decomposition is 
complete, the equilibrium is restored by placing 
weights upon the clear fop of the cork, or by re- 
moving weights from the scale. In this way the 
weight of the disengaged g;is is accuratelv deter- 
mined, and the proportion of carbontitc of lime 
thence computed. 

"An analysis of a speamen of mar' from James 
City, just completed, will serve as an ilhisrra'ic-i 
of the method. Ten grains of the fino'y pn\vd;'ir,| 
marl was introduced with a little vv'ater into the 
vessel A, the instrument was thei-, cliarovn! aiid 
equipoised. The acid being injecfHl, the whole 
was allowed to rest for an' hour. The weight 
lost was 2.91 grains. Increasing this in the ratio 
of 44 to 100, gives 6,61 grains of carbonate of lime 



in the 10 grains of marl — or almost precisely 6( 
percent. 

"The frequent calls upon me for the analysis o 
specimens of marl, first led me to the construe 
tion of this apparatus; and I have since found i i 
so convenient and accurate, that I can recomnien(ii 
its adoption to such of your readers as may havi 
a taste tor chemical inqifiries connected with ag 
ricidture. Any ordinary workei; in glass will con 
struct the iiistriunent, and skill in manipulafin,'- 
with it may be soon and easily acquired. : 

AVJM. B. ROGERS.' 

The princijile upon which the apparatus workf 
is the same as that of tlie niiM'e ex|'ensive am, 
complicated aiipr.raliis i.f [)a\y, (dosciibed in hi' 
y/gricidtural C;ic:ii'ftr\i) winch I had jjreviousf 
considered the l»est — tiiat is by separating an' 
ascertaiiiing the weight of the carbonic acid coir 
bined with the lime of the manure. E\a>ry hur' 
dred grains of calcareous earth or carbonate (' 
lime, is composed always of similar proportions i 
lime and of carbonic acid — which proportions, bl 
weight, are 5Q parts of lime, and 44 of" carbon;' 
acid. Of course, if we know how much weigl:* 
is lost in 100 grains of earth partly of carbonate i' 
lime, (as marl,) f)y driving off its carbonic acid 
the rule of pr<iporlion will show what was th( 
amount of carbonate of lime contained in the sart' 
pie of earth. 

When the muriatic acid reaches the earth i' 
t'le bulb, it immediately combines with the lime h! 
its greater attraction, and (he weaker (carbonic! 
I acid is disengaged in the form of gas, and escap( 
into the air through the tube containing the drf 
j nmriate of lime — which substance attracts moii 
I tare so powerful!)-, as to retain all that migJ! 
otherwise pass out with the gas. The same mii 
Hate of lime will serve for many experiments, f 
by being lieated in tlie tulie, its dryness is restore 
pr(;vious to every trial. Tliis salt is formed by X\ 
combination of muriatic acid with lime — and there 
fore everyexijerimenter may provide it for himsel 
by filtering and evaporating the fluid left in tl 
process of decomposing cartionate of lime. 

Mr. Rogers has since informed me that a sm£ 
portion of dry and lightly carded cotton will ser\ 
as \\ell as the muriate of lime for arresting tl 
moisture. 

The mode of analyzing by solution and preci] 
itadra, though not to be trusted for operatioi 
where great exactness is required, and althoug 
much more troublesome than the using of eilh^ 
Davy's or Rogers' apparatus, is sufficiently co 
rect for testing the strength of marl: and it hi 
the advantage of requiring no apparatus, exce 
a glass funnel, some blotting paper, and a set 
small physic scak's and weights — and no othi 
tests than muriatic acid and caibonate of potash-! 
all of which m.ay lie obtained at any apothecary 
shop. The dirccfions which follow, will be giv< 
with so much minuteness, that any attentive rea. 
er may both unders!and and follow them in pra 
tice, though totally unacquainted previously wi 
i'!i.-niic;i! terms and .processes. Tliesc directioi 
::!-(> lii.-' ai)i;eared in the Farmers' Register, V( 
!. p. iju9. 

"1st. Take a lump of marl, fossil shells, 
large enough to furnish a fair sample of the 
ticular body under consideration— dry it perfectli 
near the fire — pound the whole to a coarse povt 
der (in a metal mortar,) and mix the whole t 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



77 



ither. Take from the mixture a small sample, 

liicli reduce to a finely divided s-tate, and weigh 

it a certain portion, Pay 50 grains, for trial. 

2nd. To this known quantity in a glass, pour 

nvly and at different times, muriatic acid dilated 

ith "three or tour times its bulk of water — (any 

rcert limestone, or hard water.) The acid 

ill dissolve all the lime in the calcareous earth, 

let loose the carbonic acid with which it was 

■eviously combined, in the form of gas, or air, 

hich causes the effervescence, which so plainly 

irks the progress of such solution. The addi- 

m of the muriatic acid, must be continued as 

ng as it produces effervescence; and but very 

tie, atler that effect has ceased. The mixture 

lould be well and often stirred, and should have 

lOugh excess of acid to be sour after standing 

lirtyor Ibrty minutes. (So much of the acid as 

le lime combines with, loses its sour tasie, as 

'cll as its other ^leculiar qualities.) 

3rd. The mixture now consists of 1. the lime 

Dmbined chemically with muriatic acid, forming 

luriate of lime, which is a salt, and which is dis- 

olved in the water— 2. a small excess of muriatic 

cid, mixed with the fluid — and 3. the sand, clay 

nd any other insoluble parts of the sample of 

larl. To separate the solid from the fluid and 

oluble partS; is the next step required. 

Take a piece of filterinrr or blotting paper, 
bout six or eight inches square, (some spongs' 
nd unsi'zed newspapers serve well,) fold it so as 
o fit within a g!ass funnel, which will act better 
ts inner surface is fluted. Po\ir water first into 
lie filter, so as to see whether it is free fi-om any 
ole, ordefect — if the filtering parer operates well, 
hrow out the water, and pour into it the whole 
nixture. The fluid will slowly pass thronixh into 
gla.ss under llie funnel, leaving on the filter all 
he solid parts, on which, water must be poured 
jnce or twice, so as to wash out, and convey to 
he solution, every remaining particle of the dis- 
solved lin)e. 

4th. The solid matter left, after being thus 
washed, must be taken out of the funnel on the 
paper, and carcfidly and thoroughly dried — then 
scraped oft' the paper and weighed. The weight, 
■say 27 grains, being deducted from the original 
quantity, 50, would make the part dissolved (50 — 
27=23,) -/j,'V of the whole. And such maybe 
taken as very nearly the proportion of calcareous 
earth (or carbonate of lime) in the compound ex- 
amined. But as there will necessarily be some 
loss in the process, and every grain taken from the 
solid parts, appears in the result as a grain added 
to the carbonate of lime, it will be right in such 
partial trials to allow about two per cent, for loss, 
which allowance will reduce the foregoing state- 
ment to y'„V o'' carbonate of lime. 

5th. But it is not necessary to rely altogether on 
the estimate obtained by subtraction, as it may be 
proved by comparison with the next step of the 
process. Into the solution (and the washings) 
which passed through the filter, pour gradually 
a solution of carbonate of potash, (salts of tartar.) 
The first effect of the alkaline substance thus add- 
ed, will be to take up any excess of muriatic acid 
in the fluid — and next, to precipitate the lime 
(now converted again to carbonate of lime,) in a 
thick curd-like form. When the precipitation is 
ended, and the fluid retains a strong taste of the 
carbonate of potash, (showing it to remain in ex- 



cess,) the whole nmst be poured on another filter- 
ing paper, and (as before,) the solid matter repeat- 
edly washed by pouring on wafer, then dried, 
scraped olT, and weiy-hed. This will be the actual 
projioriion of the calcareous part of the sample, 
except, perha[ s a loss of one or two yrains in the 
hundred. The loss, therefore, in this part of the 
process apparently lessens, as the loss in the earlier 
part increases the statement of the strength of the 
manure. The whole may be sup[:osed to stand 
thus — 

27 grains ol" sand and clay. ^ 

21 of carbonate of lime. > =^50. 

2 of loss. ) 

If the loss be divided between the carbonate of 
lime ;md the other worthless parts of the manure, 
it will ninke the ]irnrortions 28 and 22, which will 
be probably nciu- the actual proportions. 

The fbreijoinir method is not the most exact, 
but is sufficiently so, t<)r practical use. All the 
errors to which it is liable, will not much aflect 
the r-ported rc-u't — unless mngnesia is present, 
and that is m.>; olteii in niauurrs of tliis nature. 
R!a;ni.-sia i- iic\ cr iMiind (I bclirvc) in the col- 
lections of fossil sli^-lis — nor have I knov.-n of its 
presence in any of the earthy nianuies, except 
limestone, and the magnesian marl latrly discover- 
ed in Hanover. If any consideralile |;ropor;ion of 
carbonate of nuignesia should be present in marl 
tried by the f n-egning nieihod, it may be suspect- 
ed by the eflisrvesceuce being very slow, compeared 
to that of carbonate of lime alone: and the pro- 
portions of these two earths may be ascertained 
as follows. The maiinesia as well as the lime 
would be dissolved by the muriatic acid, (applied 
as above directed.) but the magnesia would not 
be precipitated with the carbonaie of lime, but 
would remain dissolved in the alkaline solution, 
last separated by filtering. If this li(iuor is poured 
into a Florence flask, and boiled for a quarter of an 
hour, the carbonate of magnesia will iail to the 
bottom, and may then be separated by filtering 
and washing, and its quantity ascertained, by be- 
ing dried and weighed. This part of the process 
may be easily added to the foregoing — but it will 
very rarely be required." 

If desired,- the proportions of silicious and alu- 
minous earth may be ascertained, with enough 
truth for practical use, by stirring well these parts 
(minutely divided,) in a glass of water, and afler 
letting it stand a minute, for the sand to subside, 
pouring ofl" the fluid into another glass. The 
sand \vill be left, and the aluminous earth, or pure 
clav, pass off with the water — and each may be 
collected and dried on filtering paper, and weighed. 



[NOTE F. Page 27.] 

PROOFS OF THE EXtSTENCK OF ACID SOILS, 
FURNISHED BY THE RECENT RESEARCHES 
OF CHEMISTS. 

The 7Va!te de Chimie is a French translation 
by Esslinger, of the voluminous and valuable 
work of the great Swedish chemist Berzelius. 
The original work and the French translation 
were in the course of publication at the same time; 
and the first volumes of the latter were published 
at Paris, beibre the latter volumes of the original 



78 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



Avork had lieen sent to tlie press at Stockholm. 
The sixth vohime of the French translation, from 
which the foHowing extract is transhitcd into Eng- 
lish, was printed in 1832. It is not known wheth- 
er iiie oriirinal work is in tliis conntr}-. 

The lijljowing passages coiitain the opinions of 
Berzelius, and of otiier chemists, on hnmin, and 
humic acids, or as called here, gcine and g:;ic acid, 
and which were reierred to in the qnotation from 
Rcnnie, at page 23. It will be left to the reader 
to decide, how far my views of acid soils are sup- 
ported by these o|)inions of chemists, founded upon 
chemical analyses of the snbstauces in question. 
It is proper to state, that this new doctrine of geic 
or humic acid has not passed uncontroverted. It 
is altog:j(iier denied by Raspail, a French chemist, 
and who is a later writer than Berzelius. 

Extracts trauslatPtl from tlie TraUc de Chv.nlc. 

pnoDrcTS OF putrefaction at the sur- 
face OF the earth. 

3Iould [terreau.] 

The vegetable matters which rot at the surface 
of the earilt, finish by letxving a blackish brown 
iinlverulent mass, Avhich has received the name 
of mould, [humus.] 

All the vegetation of a year, which dies 
at the aiTival of winter, is converted by de- 
grees to mould, which is mixed with the earth in 
which the piasit gcew. wh'^ice it comes that the 
extreme surface of the ea;'iii contains a greater or 
less proportion of mould, which serves for the nu- 
triment oi the siirreeduig iivowlh of plants. This 
mould, sucii as it is foiiiid in the, earth, is (li'eu 
minii:!ed wiih l he pniducts of a h'ss advanc-d puJre- 
hictio.i, or even widi vegelalile paris not changed, 
p.rincipaily, a gre;it quantity of sinaJI roots. If 
we examine the mould, such as it is lound in cul- 
tivated soils, it is found to be in a mass very much 
mixed; but it is always possible to extract the 
j;arts which characterize mould. 

During the transformation of the vegetable 
matters to mould, the first portion of iheir mass is 
changed into a brownish black suli-anco, wliicii 
presenis all the characters of apoilte:;...- wh";' wi' 
have separated irora it the imalteretl ."r/.-i/r/, \^ iiicii 
the apotheme draws wiih it. The salts of such 
acids as are of organic origin, contained in the ve- 
getahle matter, are destroyed, so that the elements 
of the acid are resolved into water and carbonic 
acid, whilst the base is combined with the sub- 
siaiicc analogous to apotheme, which makes part 
of the mould. The salts of acids of mineral ori- 
gin are preserved, miiess they are soluble, in v\-hich 
case the rain carries them olj". In addition, mould 
contains a substance but slightly soluble in water, 
which colors the liquid yellow, and acarbonaceotts 
substance which is entirely insoluble, and which 
appears to be one of the pi-oducts of a destruction, 
R.'ill more advanced, of organic matters. 

To give an exatiiple of a completed formation 
of a mould of vegetable origin, I shall here state 
the results of an analysis to which liracannot sub- 
milted some wheat, which had remained during 



* What Barzelius calls apotheme, is "a deposite 
slightly soluble in water, produced in an aqueous solu- 
tion of vegetable extract during slow evaporation, and 
containing a lar;^er proportion of carbon, than does an 
equal weight oi" extract." 



many centuries in a damp vault, the issues Iron 
which were stopped up by earth, and of whici - 
the existence was ibrgotten, until by chance it wa - 
again discovered. The grains had preserved thei 
form, and the brightness" of their outside skm; bu 
they were black, and were reduced by the slightcs 
pressure to a black powder. The water wiil 
which they were boiled was colored yellow, and i 
left, after being evaporated, a saline mass of ; ^■ 
brownish yellow, which burnt with slight <ixplo|' 
sion when heated, and which, besides the sub''' 
stance cited, soluble in v^ater, contained nitrate o ^ 
potash, nitrate of lime, and a little of the nmriate'S 
of j)otash and of lime. The nitrates were thili' 
result of the oxydation of the nitrogen contained" 
in the gluten and vegetable albumen, and of thii^ 
combination of the nitiic acid thus produced, wit( 
the bases previously combined with vegetabh! 
acids. The weight of this mass soluble in water 
including the salts and all the other principles, di(' 
not exceed 1-^- per cent, of the weight of the blacl' 
grain. When the part insoluble in water waii 
boiled in alcohol, a small trace of a brown subi' 
stance was tak-en up, which remained after evapoi 
rating the alcohol, and had the consistence of wax: 
The mass, exhausted of its soluble parts by boil 
ing water and alcohol, was then heated slowiji 
udth a v/cak solution of caustic potash, which be 
came saturated and colored of a blackish brown' 
and this treatment was continued as long as nevn 
pottxsh lie took up any thing. This substance) 
was precipitated from the solution by an acid: i 
was the body siinilar to apotheme which has al-P 
ready been ni;Mili(>iied, and of which the weigh 
atn:)i;iil('d to^J! \'.rv cent. The portion of matte 
iiis:)lu!(li' in tiie alkali preserved the same appear 
ance. This exposed to the action of diluted mui! 
riatic acid, yielded to it a certain quantity of lii 
of oxide of^"iron, and of phosphate of lime. The' 
residue was again acted on by j)otash, which tool» 
up a new and very large proportion of the bodj 
similar to apcdheine. This was, after that, combinec 
with lime, and resisted in that state the action oi 
I potash. This calcareous combination amountec 
' to 42 hundredths. The 30 per cent, remaining 
coasisled of a black carbonaceous matter, insoluble 
in the so;\'ent used. 

\ W culiivatcd soil is treated in the same manner' 
j sinfilar results wiil be obtained, wilh this ditference 
i that \\\i^. earthy matter of the sod is found mixed- 
with the proilucts wliich are obtained, whilst nc 
' soluble salts ate nii^t with, they being generally; 
i carried oil' by the rains. 

j To describe the cotistituent principles of mould,' 
I it is necessary to designate them by particular 
names. I will then call extract rf mould the body 
soluble in water, and I will give the name of ge/.-ic* 
to the matter similar to apotheme, which consti 
tutes the princijial mass of moidd. As to the 
coally substance insolid)le in water, alcohol, arids'l 
and "alkalis, I will designate it by the name ol 
carbonaceous mould. 

Extract of mould. 

We obtain t'lis substance by drawing it from' 
the mould by the action of cold water, which be- 
comes thereby colored yellow, and which leave? 
after evaporation, a yellow extract of a bitter taste,, 
and fi-om which some geine is separated when it 

*0r hvmin, as tonned by other authors. 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



79 



igain acted on by water. If this solution is 
to evaporate spontaneously, in contact with 
it becomes covereil with an insoluble pellicle, 
I when a certain degree of concentration has 
n reached, the liquor becomes turbid. The 
jtion is precipitated by tlie sahs of tin and of 
J: alter the precipitalion, the liquor is without 
ar. According to Korte, the sulphuretted liy- 
gen gas precipitates it also. This extractive 
tter is contained in the water of many spriniis 
I streams. The water ol the springs of Poriii 
^estrogotha, contains so great a quantity that 
colored yellow. When the iron contained in 
5 water is oxydized from the air, the extract of 
uld is precipitated with the oxide of iron, and 
water becomes clear. 



This substance has received ditlerent names. 
Licaunot has given to it the name of tdmin, for 
(Sons which I have exhibited and opposed in a 
.Tier part of this work. Dobereiner and Spren- 

gave to it the name of acid of humus, because 
■ondjincs with the earths and alkalis. But for 

same reason we might give the name of acid 
iiore than the half of all vegetable bodies, 
jeme does not exist in vegetable earth onl}'; 
't contains it also, and according to Bracannot, 
3 formed when the saw-dust of wood is exposed 
die action of caustic potash. It is almost im- 
sible to obtain geine in a state of purity. One 
t of the geine which is met with in a natural 
te, is in combination with bases; but when we 
^.mpt to remove these by an acid, the geine 
nbines in part with the excess of acid, and ac- 
res itself (in part) the property of reddening 
jetable blues. Geine possesses all the proper- 
! of a])otlieine, and it is produced like other 
)themes; that is to say, by the action of the air 
dissolved extract of mould. In its natural state 
oes not act chemically, either like the acids or 

alkalis, nor does it have any effect on the color 
vegetable blues. It is but slightly soluble in 
ter, which it colors of a pale yellow; is still less 
uble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether. Ex- 
;ed to the action of heat it takes fire, burns at 
t with flame, then without flame like sr,unk, 
eading a peculiar odor, something like tiiat of 
•ning peat. Submitted to dry disiillation, it is 
;om posed, gives half its weight of a charcoal 
t^ing a metallic lustre, of em pyreumatic oil, an 
d water containing acetic acid and sometimes 
monia, some carburetted hydrogen, and a little 
bonic acid gas. If geine is held suspended in 
ter, through which a current of chlorine is pas- 
, this whitens it, and precipitates a white resin- 
! substance. Iodine is without action on it. 
we add an acid to an alkaline solutif)n of" geine, 

geine is precipitated. If the whole of the 
ne is not j)recipitated, that i)art which is pre- 
itated retains in combination a small portion of 

base, and leaves, when it is burnt, a small 
mtity of alkaline ashes. If, on the contrary, 
excess of acid is poured into the alkaline solu- 

?i, the liquor is discolored, and the precipitated 
ne strongly reddens vegetable blues, a property 
■'ich cannot be removed by placing the geine on 
liter, and pouring water upon it." So'long as 
1 liquor which passes through the filter contains 
5? acid, it is not colored; then it begins to be 
Sored, and finally it dissolves as much as two- 



thirds of its weight of the precipitated mass. 
These acid pro|)erties belong in part to the geine, 
which owes them to the action of the alkali, and 
which may, in this case, be called geic acid; they 
ought to be in part attributed to a combination of 
the geine with the precipitated acid. According 
to li)inhofT, it is the latter case which is really pre- 
sented, and the acid cannot be carried off, but with 
the aid of an alkali. Sprengel, t)n the other hand, 
pr; Ifiuls to have li'eed the aviiie, liy jTolonged 
washinir, ii-om the muriatic acid whieii had served 
to jjrecijiitate it: and to make certain the absence 
of the muriatic acid, he has mixed the washed 
geine with a little nitrate of silver. After evapo- 
ration to dryness, and calcination, the residue, 
treated by nitric acid, was dissolved, without leav- 
ing any muriate of silver. But as muriate of 
silver, like the other salts of silver, is reduced to a 
metallic state by bodies conttiining carbon and 
hydrogen, and carbon itself effects the same 
change when disengaged along with water, this 
result proves nothing. In general, in the descrip- 
tions of geine, they have attributed the prop,erties 
of that which has been change^^by the action of 
an alkali, to the geine which has not been altered. 
The geine which reddens vegetable blues, is the 
same, whatever may have been the acid which 
serv^ed for its precipitation. Its saturated aqueous 
solution is of a yellov.dsh brown, and the combi- 
nation is precipitated anew by acids, excepting 
the carbonic, and the sulphuretted hydrogen. Col- 
lected upon a filter, it is presented under the form 
of a gelathious mass, of a taste slightly acid, as- 
trhigent — and by drying, it contracts strongly, and 
forms clots of a deep brown, almost black, wilh a 
vitreous fracture, and which are not dissojved 
again in water after being once completely dried. 
Tlie aqueous solution of the acid geine, is precipi- 
tated by the salts of lead, of tin, and of iron; but 
is not disturbed by gelatine, albumen, starch, gum, 
tannin, or solution of soap. According to Bracan- 
not, it is precipitated by a mixturo of the solution 
of gelatine and gallic acid. The dried i;-eiiic is 
dissolved wilh difficulty, and incon)|]!et.'ly, in al- 
cohol. The solution reddens veueialde blues, 
whilst the part not dissolved ir vidiout this |;ower, 
though it still preserves the pni[)eriy of combiidng 
with potash. Geine is destroyed by concentrated 
acids. The sulphuric acid dissolves it, taking at 
the same time a black color, carbonizing it, disen- 
gaging sulphurous acid gas, and leaving for resi- 
due the ordinary products which result from the 
action of this acid. By the addition of sur-oxide 
(or black oxide) of manganese, carbonic acid gas 
is disengaged. The nitric acid dissolves and de- 
composes geine, with a disengagement of nitric 
oxide gas, and carbonic acid gas. If the solution 
is evaporated to the consistence of sh-oj), and then 
mixed with water, there is precijatated a peculiar 
bitter substance in powder, and there are found in 
the solution, artificial tannin and oxalic acid. 

Geine forms soluble combinations with alkalis. 
When an excess of geine is used, the caustic al- 
kalis are so neutralized by this substance, that they 
lose their peculiar chemical action and properties. 
In this respect geine agrees with gluten, vegetable 
albumen, the brown of indigo, the sugar of liquor- 
ice, apotheme, and other bodies not acid. During 
the evaporation, the solution furnishes a black 
mass, which acquires lustre by complete drj*ng, 
and splits, and is sasiiy reduced to a powder. It 



80 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



is re-dissolved in water, its tasle is weak, bitter 
and disa^reeai)Ie. Caustic ammonia gives a like 
mass, soluble in wafer, which gives up, during 
evaporation, the excess of alkali employed. Geine 
is not dissolved a!\va}s in alkaline carbonates; 
whiMi it i.s so dissolved, lln'so cailionates iwv trans- 
formed, h;ilf into gralc:^, Inili' into lii-caiuonates. 
When the solution is lioilcd, tin? Iji-i'arbunate is 
decomposed with disejigaypuicnt oj' carbonic acid 
gas, and in this manner the gcine drives ofi' all 
the carbonic acid. If a solution of geine in car- 
bonate of amuionia, is evaporated, a residue is 
obtained containing neutralized geate of ammonia. 
The solution of geine in caustic potash in excess, 
absorbs ox\ ucn li-oni the air, and at the end of 
some time, the alkali is in part carbonated. 

Geine f )rms with the alkaline mrths pulverulent 
combinations but little soluble, which have an ex- 
ternal resen)blance to geine. The best means lor 
obtaining them, is to mix a solution ol" the geate 
of ammonia, with the solution of an earthy salt; 
the combination of the geine with the earth is pre- 
cipitated, and may be separated by filtration, Irom 
the supernatant fluid. In the humid state, these 
compounds are slightly solidile in water. Accord- 
ing to the exp(M-imi'nfs of SiM-engel, one part, of 
geate of baryics is dissolved in 5200 |)arts of water, 
one part of geate of lime is soluble in 2000 part 



from the alkaline solution, in the state of a( 
geine. AVhen cold, the sulphuric acid h;is t 
little effect on it. According to Bracannot, t 
nitric acid converts it, at a gentle heat, to a bro\ 
liquor, in which water produces a precipitate ol 
chocolate color, which possesses the properties 
acid geine, and is dissolved without residue, in t 
alkalis. 

Soil [terre vegelale.J 
It is the mixture of these several substam 
with the upper layer of the surface of the ear 
which constitutes the vegetable earth, or soil, pi 
perly so called. Arable land is a bed of this s( 
jdaced upon a bed of earth which contains 
mould. Its fertility depends upon the quanlityi 
niould which it contains. Growing jdants cc 
tinually diminish the quantity of geine contair 
in the soil; and when the plants are carried 
from the soil on which they grew, which happ( 
almost always with cultivated land, it is tina 
exhausted to that degree as to produce nothii 
It is on this account that it is necessary to mam 
land. The matters discharged and left by animsi 
or the barn-yard manure which is used tort 
purjxise, are by degrees converted into geine, i\ 
thus replace the nuitters dissi|)aled by vegetatit, 
Botanists who have directed their attention to i 
getable physiology, have remarked that the pla; 



water, and one part of geate of magnesia, in 160 

parts of wafer, cold. These same comjiounds re- j vegetate well enough without geine, until 
quire for their solution, rather snialler proportions | time arrives for them to commence their sex: 
of boiling water. AihM- having been com])letely j lunctions. But as soon as these are ended,! 
dried, tliey will no more dissolve. In the air, the 'he fruit begins to be developed, the plants abs 
base is condiincd in part with carbonic acid, and a great quantity of the nutritive principles ci 
the carbonate which results thererrom, remains in tained in the soil, and if these are not in the s 
the state of nfixture with a combination of geine, j the flower lulls without forming any Iruit. T 
and of a bas(^ analouons to a super-salt. The 
alkaline carb onalcs d;'fonq)0S3 the earthy geates; 
they dissolve the geine, and leave the base in the 
state of carbonate. According to Sprengel, the 
geates of lime and magnesia are dissolved m the 
caustic fixed alkalis, and in the carbonate of am- 
monia. Other chemists have not arrived at the 
same result; and according to them, the geate of 
potash, acted on by the hydrate of lime, precipi- 
tates all the geine. The geate of alumina is pre- 
cipitated when a solution of alum is mixed with a 
solution of geate of potash, or of ammonia. This 
compound is dissolved in 4200 parts of cold water. 
In the moist state if is dissolved easily, and in abun- 
dance, in the alkaline carbonates and hydrates, 
and even in ammonia. According to Sprengel, it 
resists the decomposing action of acids, so that it 
is difficult to extract from it geine exempt from 
alumine. A combination is obtained having an 
excess of alumine, by digesting a solution of the 
geate of ammonia with hydrate of alumina. * 



Carbonaceous mould. 

The substance to which this name has been 
given has been but little examined. It is inso- 
luble in alkaline liquors. Its color is a brown, 
almost black. Placed in contact with a body 
in combustion, it takes fire, and burns with- 
out flame like spunk. According to the experi- 
ments of Th. de Saussure, carbonaceous mould 
combhies with the oxygen of the air, and forms 
carbonic acid gas, and when it is left a long time 
exposed to air and water, it becomes by slow de- 
grees soluble in alkalis. The acids precipitate it 



experiments to which Th. de Saussure has s 
nutted soil, [terre vegetale] appear to demonsti 
that the three constituent principles of mould, r 
be converted the one to the other, under 
alternately jireponderating infiuence of air i 
water. Water converts to the extract <f moii. 
part of the insoluble geine contained in the soil, . 
this translbrmation extends more and more,' 
that finally the greater part of the geine becoii 
soluble. In contact with the air, the dissoj' 
matter passes again to the state of geine. ' 
carbonaceous mould which changes a part of 
air into carbonic acid, is itself changed by air 
geine, and into the extract of mould, and it is ui 
this transformation that appear to depend in] 
the advantages derived from the tillage of the 
which is divided by the action of the plough, 
exposed to the immediate influence of" the air. 
this manner all the parts of the soil contribut 
nutrition; whilst it is probable that the solutioi 
the extract of mould, that of the geate of 111 
and perhaps also that of the geate of alumine. 
immediately absorbed by the roots. Durir 
heavy rain, this solution penetrates the intei 
and often to very dee|) beds of the steril earth:i 
notwithstanding that, it is not lost to veget 
life: for the roots of trees seek it, and bring it 1! 
as matter suitable for their nourishment. 

Experience has- demonstrated that quickl, 
and tlie carbonate of lime, mingled with the 
favor the vegetation produced thereon. Chem 
has not yet explained, in a satisfactory marl 
the power which lime thus exerts; howev 
known that when the soil contains this alb 
earth, or, in its place, aslies only, the mouli 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



81 



Liickly consumed, and vegetation becomes more 

h in proportion. It has thence been concluded 

xt lime acts, partly in exciting ihe plant to great- 

r activity, and partly in rendering more soluble 

principles of the soil, which are absorbed by 

le roots when dissolved in the water which the 

irtli has imbibed. Lime is not then a true [or 

mentary] manure. It contributes only to pro- 

lote and hasten the absor|)tion of the ])rinciples 

hicli serve to nourish the plant; and that lime 

lay be serviceable, it is necessary to introduce 

ito the soil, imjjroved b}- lime, materials jiroper 

furnish new quantities of mould. The lime, or 

le alkali contained in ashes, acts also in hastening 

le change of organic matters to mould. 

It is known by experience, that gypsum also 

ugm'nts the fertility of the earth, especially when 

gtuniaous plants are cultivated. It is not proba- 

le that this neutral salt acts in the same manner 

g lime, and wc are ignorant of what is its mode 

acting. 

Soil [terre vcgHaW] possesses the property ol 
eing able to retain as mucli as three-iburths of 
s weight of water without appearing moist, and 
ke charcoal, it condenses atmospheric humiditj*. 
owes this property to the geine which it con- 
iins, which is one of the substances which, of all 
nown, absorbs moisture v/ith most energy, 
lould [terreaii] can absorb double its weight ol 
ater, without appearing moist; and after being 
ried, it draws from the air, in less than twenty- 
)ur hours, a quantity of water, which may vary 
ccording to the humidity of the atmosphere, from 
" to lOOper cent, of its weight. This property 
epends upon its light and dust-like consistence; 
d geine, ol" which the fi-acture becomes vitreous 
'om its course of chemical treatment, is deprived 
f this physical property, which is of the utmost 
portance to vegetable lile. For, in consequence 
this property, mould retains water in the earth 
nd obstructs its evaporation; and it is probabl}^ 
lis water which maintains the extremities of the 
30ts in the state to perform their functions. 
It is usual to divide soil into fertile earth, and 
cid earth.* The first is very common — the se- 
lond presents itself but rarely. It produces no- 
ning, unless it be mosses: it is in marshy places 
hat it is ordinarily found. It is in general com- 
posed in the same manner as fertile earth; but 
vhilst in the latter the geine is united with lime, 
ind perhaps with other bases besides, it is, in the 
icid earth, combined with acids, which, according 
Einhof, are the phosphoric and acetic acids. If 
;s for this reason that it has the property of red- 
lenmg vegetable blues, and that it gives, by cal- 
;ination, ashes which contain phosphoric acid. 
Po dry distillation, it yields a great quantity of an 



acid liquid, containing the acetate of ammonia; 
and when it is distilled, after having mixed it with 
water, a liquid product is obtained which reddens 
vegetable blues, and likewise contains acetate of 
anmionia. In opposition to Einhof, Sprengel af- 
firms that the acid geine is produced only Tor the 
want of bases, and that its acid action proceeds 
only from the geic acid which it contains, and not 
from the presence of a foreign acid. De Pontin 
has made the analysis of an arid* soil taken from 
the plain of Eckerud in the government of Elfs- 
burg in Sweden, and found that the geine had 
there combined with the malic, acetic, and phos- 
phoric acids. The dissolving of the soluble prin- 
ciples of the soil in boiling water, left to be de- 
posited, when the hydrate of lime was mixed 
therein, these acids as well as geine, so that there 
was found afterwards in the water only traces of 
the acetate and hydrate of lime. But when a 
current of carbonic acid gas was made to pass 
through this precipitate steeped in water, the geine 
remained, without dissolving, in combination with 
the carbonate of lime produced, while there was 
formed a solution slightly yellowish, which left, 
after evaporation, a residue of calcareous salts. 
This residue was treated by alcohol, which took 
up a certain quantity of acetate of lime, and left 
a salt of lime of a gummy appearance, which was 
soluble in w^ater, and possessed the properties of 
the malate of lime. In burning the geate of lime, 
and taking up the residue by muriatic acid, there 
was obtained a solution which, when treated by 
ammonia, gave a small precipitate of phosphate 
of lime. "The greater part of the acid geine was 
dissolved in the carbonate of ammonia. Hydrate 
of lime was poured into the solution, which pre- 
cipitated the geine without leaving in solution a 
salt of lime. But when after having washed the 
precijntate, it was calcined, and the residue treated 
with muriatic acid, there was obtained a solution, 
which, after the expulsion of the carbonic acid, 
gave with ammonia an abundant precipitate of 
the phosphate of lime. These experiments con- 
firm those given by Einhof 

An arid* soil becomes fertile when there is 
mixed with it lime, or ashes and earth, inasmuch 
the soil consists principally of geine. The re- - 
port of Sprengel, according to which, it [this cha- 
racter of soil] is produced in consequence of the 
absence of the bases which are found in fertile 
earth, is certainly true; but it does not follow from 
that, that it owes its acidity solely to the acid na- 
ture of the geine. The ashes of arid* soil always 
contain a great quantity of eilex. 



*It is not a little strangle to say it is "usual [dans 
'usagel to divide soils into fertile earth and acid earth," 
vhen the acid nature of any, has been treated by Ber- 
:elius as a new discovery, and of which the truth is 
lot admitted by all of those who jiad taken the sub- 
ect into consideration. If this division had indeed 
)een usual, there would have been no want of numer- 
>us authorities (whatever might be their value) for 
he acidity of soil. 
11 



*This is still more strange, that so abrupt a ti'ansla- 
tion should be made from acid, to anrf soils — and in such 
manner as to induce the belief that the change was not 
owing to the author — but to an error of the press. But 
though this mistake would be as likely to occur in 
French as almost any other, (only one letter be- 
'n<x different in the words acide and aride — ) still it is 
lifRcult to believe that this same error should have 
been made and left to stand three times in this and the 
next page, where "arid" soils are named, and are 
marked * as above. The French translation is said to 
contain numerous typographical errors. I leave others 
to decide whether these are among the number or not. 



82 



ON CALCAREOUS 'MANURES. 



[NOTE G. Page 35.] 

THE STATEMENTS OF BRITISH AUTHORS ON 
MARL, GENERALLY INCORRECT AND CON- 
TRADICTORY. 

Custom compels me to apply improperly the 
name nuiri to our deposites ot" tbssil shells. But 
as I have defined the manuring by this substance, 
which is called marling, to be simply making a 
soil calcareous, or more so than it was before, any 
term used for that operation would serve, if its 
meaning was always kept in view. But this term, 
unfortunately, is of old and frequent use in Eng- 
lish books, with very different meanings. The 
existence of these differences and errors, has been 
generally stated in the foregoing pages of this 
essay, and I shall here present the proofs. The 
following quotations will show that the term 7rMrl 
is frequently applied in Britain, to clays contain- 
ing no known or certain proportion of calcareous 
earth — that when calcareous earth is known to be 
contained, it is seldom relied on as the most valu- 
able part of the manure — and that in many cases 
the reader is left in doubt loheihcr the manure has 
served to increase, or diminish, or has not altered 
materially, the amount of the former calcareous in- 
gredient of the soil. 

The passages quoted will exhibit so fully the 
striking contradictions and ignorance generally 
prevailing as to the nature and operation of marl, 
that it will scarcely be necessary for me to express 
dissent in every case, or to point out the errors or 
uncertainty of facts, or of reasoning, which will 
so abundantly appear. 

1. Kirwan, on the authority of Arthur Young, 
and the Bath Memoirs, [1783] states that 

"in some parts of England, where husbandry is suc- 
cessfully practised, aiiy loose day is called marl: in 
others, marl is called chalk, and in others, clay is called 
loam." — Kirwan on Manures, p. 4. 

2. The learned and practical Miller thus de- 
fines and describes marl, in the abridgment of the 
Gardener^s Dictionary, fifth London edition, at 
the article marl. 

"Marl is a kind of clay which is become fatter and 
of a more enriching quality, by a better fermentation, 
and by its having lain so deep in the earth as not to 
have spent or weakened its fertilizing quality by any 
product. Marls are of difierent qualities in diliereiit 
counties of England. — " 

He then names and describes ten varieties, most 
of them being very minutely and particularly 
characterized — and in only two of the ten, is 
there any allusion to a calcareous ingredient, and 
in these, it is evidently not deemed to constitute 
their value as manures. These are '-the cowshut 
marl" of Cheshire, which — 

"is of a brownish color, with blue veins in it, and lit- 
tle lumps of chalk or limestone" — and "clay-marl; 
this resembles clay, and is pretty near akin to it, but is 
fatter, and sometimes mixed with chalk stones. 

"The properties of any sorts of marls, by which the 
goodness of them may be best known, are better 
judged of by their purity and uncompoundedness, 
than their color: as if it will break in pieces like dice, 
or into thin Hakes, or is smooth like lead ore, and is 
without a mixture of gravel or sand; if it will shake 
like slatestones, and shatter after wet, or will tumble 



into dust, when it has been exposed to the sun; o ' 
will not hang and stick together when it is thoroughh 
dry, like tough clay; but is fat and tender, and wi] 
open the land it is laid on, and not bind; it may b 
taken for gi-anted that it will be beneficial to it." 

3. Johnson''s Dictionary (Octavo edition) de 
fines marl in precisely the words of the first sen 
tence of Miller, as quoted above. 

4. Walker'' s Dictionary (Octavo edition) givei 
only the following definition — "marl — a kind d 
clay much used for manure." 

5. jj Practical Treatise on Husbandry, (2m 
London edition 4to, 1762,) which professes to bt 
principally compiled from the writings of Duhai 
mel, Evelyn, Home, and Miller, supplies the toil 
lowing quotations. 

"But of all the manures for sandy soils, none is i 
good as marl. There are many difierent kinds am 
colors of it, severally distinguished by many writer 
but their virtue is the same; they may be all use 
upon the same ground, without the smallest ditferenc 
in their effect. The color is either red, brown, ye. 
low, grey, or mixed. It it to be known by its pun 
and uncompounded nature. There are many mark; 
distinguish it by; such as its breaking into little squan 
bits; its falling easily into pieces, by the force of i 
blow, or upon being exposed to the sun and the fros 
its feeling fat and oily, and shining when 'tis dry. 
the most unerring way to judge of marl, and know ■ 
from any other substance, is to break a piece as big j 
a nutmeg, and when it is quite dry, drop it into i 
glass of clear water, where, if it be right, it will diii 
solve and crumble, as it were, to dust, in a little timn 
shooting up sparkles to the surface of the water.' 
p. 27. 

— Not the slightest hint is here of any calcareoD' 
ingredient beinor necessary, or even serving 
any manner to distinguish marl. But afterwardii 
in another part of this work, when shell marl ' 
slightly noticed, it is said, 

"this effervesces strongly with all acids, which is peiJ 
haps chiefly owing to the shells. There are very god 
marls ivhich show nothing of this effervescence: anl 
therefore the author of the New System of ^gricultw 
judged right in making its solution in water the dil 
tinguishing mark." — p. 29. 

The last sentence declares, as clearly as am 
words could do, that, in the opinion of the authnj 
no calcareous ingredient is necessary, either 
constitute the character, or the value of marl. An 
though it may be gathered from other parts ■ 
this work, that what is called marl generally coiij 
tains calcareous earlh, yet no importance seem 
attached to that quality, any more than to the pa; 
ticular color of the earth, or any other accidenti 
or immaterial appearance of some of the varietiii 
described. 

The "shell marl" alluded to above, without e: 
planation might be supposed to be similar to o' 
beds of fossil shells, which are called marl. Tf 
two manures are very different in form, appeaij 
ance, and value, though agreeing in both beiri 
calcareous. The manure called shell marl by til 
work last quoted from, is described there wil 
sufficient precision, and more fully in several pan 
of the Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine,* and 1 
the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricultural S^ 
ciety.t It is still more unlike marl properly 



* See Farmers' Register, Vol. I. p. 90. 
t Vol. 3. p. 206. 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



83 



ailed, than any of the substances described under 
lat name, in the foregoing quotations. This 
lanure is almost a pure calcareous earth, being 
irmed of the remains of small fresh-water shells 
eposited on what were once the bottoms of lakes, 
ut which have since become covered wdth 6og or 
eat soil. If I may judge I'rom our beds of mus- 
ie shells, (to which this manure seems to bear 
nost resemblance,) much putrescent animal mat- 
3r is combined with, and serves to give additional 
alue to these bodies of shells. This kind of ma- 
ure is sold in Scotland by the bushel, at such 
trices, as show that it is very highly prized. It 
leems to be found but in iew situations, and 
hough called a kind of marl, is never meant 
vhen that term alone is used generally. 

The opinions expressed in the foregoing ex- 
racts, prove sufficiently that it was not the igno- 
■ant cultivators only, who either did not know of, 
)r attached no importance to the calcareous ingre- 
lient in marl: and it w^as impossible, that ii-om 
my number of such authors, an American reader 
ould learn that either the object, or the effect of 
narling, was to render a soil more calcareous — or 
hat our bodies of fossil shells resembled marl in 
jharacter, or in operation, as a manure. Of this, 
he following quotation will furnish striking proof 
and the niore so, as the author refers frequently 
to the works of Anderson, and of Young, who 
treated of marl and calcareous manures, in a more 
scientific manner than had been usual. This au- 
thor, Bordley, cannot be justly charged with inat- 
tention to the instruction to be gained from books: 
for his greatest fault, as an agriculturist, is his 
fondness for applying the practices of the most 
improved husbandry of England, to our lands and 
situations, however different and unsuitable — 
which he carries to an extent that is ridiculous as 
theory, and Avould be ruinous to the farmer who 
should so shape his general practice. 

6. "I farmed in a country [the Eastern Shore of 
Maryland] where habits are against a due attention to 
manures: but having read of the application of marl 

a manure, I inquired where there was any in the 

Eeninsula of the Chesapeake, in vain. My own farm 
ad a grayish clay, which to the eye was marl: but 
because it did not effervesce with acids, it was given 
up, when it ought to have been tried on the land, es- 
pecially as it rapidly crumbled and fell to mud, in wa- 
ter, witli some appearance of effervescence." — Bord- 
ley's Husbandry, 2nd ed. p. 55. 

That peninsula, through which Mr. Bordley in 
vain inquired tor marl, has immense quantities of 
the fossil shells which we so improperly call by 
that name. But as his search was directed to marl 
as described b\' English authors — and not to cal- 
careous earth simply — it is not to be wondered at 
that he should neither find the former substance, 
nor attach enough importance to the latter, to in- 
duce the slightest remark on its probable use as 
manure. 

7. The Practical Treatise on Husbandry, 
among the directions for improving clay land, has 
what follows. 

"Sea sand and sea shells are used to great advantage 
as a manure, chiefly for cold strong [i. e. clay] land, 
and loam inclining to clay. They separate the parts; 
and the salts which are contained in them are a very 
great improvement to the land. Coral, and such kind 
of stony plants which grow on the rocks, are filled 
with salts, which are very beneficial to land. But as 



these bodies are hard, the improvement is not the first 
or second year after they are laid on the ground, be- 
cause they require time to pulverize them, before 
their salts can mix with the earth to impregnate it. 
The consequence of this is, that their manure is last- 
ing. Sand, and the smaller kind of sea weeds, will 
enrich land for six or seven years: and shells, coral, and 
other hard bodies, will continue many years long- 
er. 

"In some countries /os«7 shells have been used with 
success as manure; but they are not near so full of 
salts, as those shells which are taken from the sea 
shore; and therefore the latter are always to be prefer- 
red. Sea sand is much used as manure in Cornwall. 
The best is that which is intimately mixed with 
coral." — p. 21. 

After stating the manner in which this "excellent 
manure" is taken up from the bottom, in barges, 
its character is thus continued: 

"it [i. e.the sea sand mixed with coral, as it may hap- 
pen,] gives the heat of lime, and the fatness of oil, to 
the land it is laid upon. Being more solid than shells, 
it conveys a greater quantity of fermenting earth in 
equal space. Besides, it does not dissolve in the 
ground so soon as shells, but decaying more gradually, 
continues longer to impart its warmth to the juices of 
the earth." 

Here are described manures which are known 
to be calcareous, which arestrongly recommended 
— but solely for their supposed mechanical effect 
in separating the parts of close clays, and on ac- 
count of the salts derived from sea water, which 
they contain. Indeed, no allusion is made to any 
supposed value, or even to the presence of calca- 
reous earth, which forms so large a proportion of 
these manures: and the fossil shells, (in which 
that ingredient is more abundant, more finely re- 
duced, and consequently more fit for both imme- 
diate and durable effects,) are considered as less 
efficacious than solid sea shells — and inferior to 
sea sand. All these substances, besides whatever 
service their salts may render, are precisely the 
same kind of calcareous manure, as our beds of 
fossil shells furnish in a difi'erent form. Yet nei- 
ther here nor elsewhere, does the author intimate 
that these manures and marl have similar powers 
tor improving soils. 

The foregoing quotations show wdiat opinions 
have been exj)ressed by English writers of repu- 
tation — and what opinion would be formed by a 
general reader of these and other agricultural 
works, of the nature of what is called marl, in 
England, as well as what is so named in this part 
of OLU' country. I do not mean that other authors 
have not thought more correctly, and sometimes 
expressed themselves with precision on this sub- 
ject. Mineralogists define marl, to be a calcareous 
'clay*—imA in this correct sense, the term is used 
by Davy, and other chemical agriculturists. Such 
authors as Young, and Sinclair, also could not 
have been ignorant of the true composition of 
marl— yet even they have used so little precision 
or clearness, when speaking of the effects of marl- 
ing, that their statements, (however correct they 
may be in the sense they intended them,) convey 
no exact information, and have not served to re- 
move the erroneous impressions made by the 
great body of their predecessors. Knowing as 
Young did [see first quotation] the confusion in 



Cleaveland's Mineralogy. 



^T 



T)N CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



which this subject was involveJ, it was the more 
incumbent on liim to be guarded in his use of terms 
so generally misappUed. Yet considering his 
practical and scientific knowledge as an agricul- 
turist, his extensive personal observations, and 
the quantity of matter he has published on soils 
and calcareous manures, his omissions are more 
remarkable than those of any other writer. In 
euch of his works as I have met with, though 
liill of strong recommendations of marling, in no 
case does he stale the composition ot the soil, (as 
respects its calcareous ingredient,) or the propor- 
tion added by the operation — and generally no- 
tices neither, as if he viewed marlingjust as most 
others have done. These charges are supported 
by the following extracts and reterences. 

8. Young's FarmRr''s Calendar, 10th London 
edition, page 40. — On marling. Through nearly 
four pages this practice is strongly recommended 
— but the manures spoken of, are regularly called 
"marl or clay," and their application, "marling or 
claying." Mr. Rodwell's account of his practice 
is inserted at length. On leased land he "clayed 
or marled" eight hundred and twenty acres with 
one hundred and forty thousand loads, and at a 
cost of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-eight 
pounds — and the business is stated to have been 
attended with great profit. At last, the author 
lets us know that it is not the same substance that 
he has been calling "marl or clay" — and that the 
marl eflervesces strongly with acids, and the clay 
slightly. But we are told nothing more precise 
as to the amount of calcareous ingredients, either 
in the manures, or the soil — and even if we were 
informed on those heads, (without which we can 
know little or nothing of what the operation really 
is,) we are left ignorant of how much wasclayeil, 
and how much marled. It is to be inferred, how- 
ever, that the clay was thought most serviceable, 
as Mr. Rod well says — 

"clay is much to be preferred to marl on those sandy 
soils, .^ome of which are loose, poor, and even a black 



9. Young's Survey of Norfolk, (a large and 
closely printed octavo volume,) has fourteen pages 
filled with a minute description of the soils ol" that 
county — but without any indication whatever of 
the proportion, ]5resence, or absence, of calcareous 
earth in that extensive district of sandy soils, so 
celebrated for their improvement by marling — nor 
in any other part of the county. The wastes are 
very extensive: one of them (page 385) eighteen 
miles across, quite'a desert of sand, "yet highly 
improveable," Of this also, no information is 
given as to its calcareous constitution. 

10. The section on marl (page 402, of the 
same work) gives concise statements of its appli- 
cation, with general notices of its effects, on near 
fifty different parishes, neighborhoods, or separate 
fiirms. Among all these, the only statements 
from which the calcareous nature ol" the manure 
may be gathered, are, (page 406) of a marl that 
"'ferments strongly with acids" — another, (page 
409,) that marling at a particular place destroys 
sorrel — and (page 410) that the marl is generally 
calcareous, and that that containing the most clay, 
and the least calcareous earth, is preferred by most 
persons, but not by all. 

Young's General View of the Agriculture of 
Suffolk, (an octavo of 432 pages of close print,) 



in the description of soils, aflbrds no informatioi 
as to any of them being calcareous, or othcrvvii^i 
yet the author mentions (page 3) havinganalyze 
some of the soils, and reports their alumino-js aii: 
silicious ingredients. Nor can more be learned 
in this respect, in the long account afterwanl 
given of the "marl" which has been very exteii 
sively applied also in the county of Suffolk. W 
may gather however from the following extract:- 
that the "marl or clay" of Suffolk, is generall 
calcareous, but that this quality is not considen ^ 
the principal cause of its value — and further, tha 
crag, a much richer calcareous manure, (whici: | 
seems to be the same with our richest beds of fos-L 
sil shells, or marl,) is held to be injurious to the! 
sandy soils, which are so generally inproved by 
what is there called marl. 

11. "Claying — a term in Suffolk, which includesl 
marling; and indeed the earth carried under this temn 
is very generally a clay marl; though apure, or near^ 
ly a pure clay, is preferred for very loose sands." — j 
Young's Suffolk, p. 186. 

12. After speaking of the great value of this' 
manure on light lands, he adds — 

"but when the clay is not of a good sort, that is, wher! 
there is really none, or scarcely any clay in it, but is 
an imperfect and even a hard chalk, there are greaii 
doubts how far it answers, and in some cases has beei 
spread to little profit.'"' — p. 187. 

13. "Part of the under stratum of the county is : 
singular body of cockle and other shells, found iii 
great masses in various parts of the country, fromi 
Dunwich quite to the river Orwell, &c." — 'l have, 
seen pits of it to the depth of fifteen or twenty feeti 
from which great quantities had been taken for the 
purpose of improving the heaths. It is both red anc 
white, and the shells so broken as to resemble sandi 
On lands long in tillage, the use is disconiimied, as it is' 
found to make the sands blow more." [That is, to bej 
moved by the winds.] — p. 5. 

13. TheEssayon Manures by Arthur Young, foD 
which the author was honored with the Eedfbrc 
medal, speaks distinctly enough of the value o: 
marl being due to its calcareous ingredient, (as this 
author doubtless always knew, notwithstandino 
the looseness of most of his remarks on this head — } 
but at the same time he furnishes some of the 
strongest examples of absurd inferences, or o 
gross ignorance of the mode in which calcareous 
earth acts as an ingredient of soil, and the proi 
portion which soils ought to contain. These are 
his statements, and his reasoning thereon : 

"It is extremely difficult to discover, from the know*' 
ledge at present possessed by the public, what ouglr 
to be the quantity of calcareous earth in a soil. The| 
best specimen analyzed by Giobert, had 6 per cent.i 
by Bergman, 30 per cent.; "by Dr. Fordyce, 2percent.: 
a rich s^oil, quoted by Mr. Davy, in his lecture at the 
Royal Institution, 11 per cent. This is an inquiry] 
concerning which I have made many experiments i 
and on soils of the most extraordinary fertility. Ii 
one, the proportion was equal to 9 per cent.; in ano- 
ther, 20 percent.; anotiier, 3 per cent.; and in a speci- 
men of famous land, which I procured from Flanders? 
17 per cent. But the circumstance which much per-i 
plexes the inquiry is, that many poor soils possess the 
same or nearly the same proportions, as these most fer 
tile ones. To attain the truth in so important a poinfe 
induced me to repeat many trials, and to compare ev&( 
ry circumstance; and I am disposed to conclude, thOi 
the necessity of there being a large proportion ofcalcot 
rcous earth in a soil, depends on ilw deficiency of orgam 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



85 



. \ c'-otable or animal] matter; of that organic mat- 

w liiiii is [partl_v] convertible into hydro2;en gas. If 

r,.> iii.'i- finds, by experiment, that his soi"] has but a 

:iitity of oVganic matter, or knows by his prac- 

: is poor, and not worth more than IDs., los. or 

■ 10, he may then conclude that there ovght to be 

hrr ant. of calcareous earth in it; but if, on the con- 

y, it abound w'ith organic matter, and be worth in 

ctice a much larger rent, in tliat case his marl cart 

! not be called for, though there be but five per cent. 

ven l^ss, of calcareous matter." — Young's Essay on 

inures — Sect. 2. 

t is scarcely necessary to show, that the opin- 
of .calcareous matter, being needed in larger 
intities in proportion to the deficiency of pu- 
gcent matter, is directly opposed to the reasoning 
this essay. If a poor soil were made to contain 
nty per cent, of calcareous matter, by appl) ing 

3, chalk, or marl, the quantity and the expense 
uid be so enormous as not to "be justified by any 
isible return — and in truth, would lessen, rather 
n increase, the product of a poor soil. The lact 
ned as strange, by Young, that some rich soils 
itaiii very small, and others very large propor- 
is of calcareous earth, is easily explained. If a 
ural soil contains any excess of calcareous earth, 
m though but one per cent., it shows that there 
hat much to spare alter serving every purpose 
neutralizing acids and combining with putres- 
it matter. It" there were twenty per cent, more 
calcareous matter, it Avould be useless, until met 

an additional supply of putrescent matter, 
mng's statement that some poor soils agree pre- 
ely with other rich soils, in their contents of cal- 
eous earth, does not necessarily contradict my 
;trine that a proper proportion of calcareous 
th will enable any soil to become rich, either in 
state ot nature, or imder mild cultivation — 
i for the following reasons: 

4. 1st. The correctness of Young's analyses may 
well doubled — and if he used the then usual 
(cess lor separating calcai'eous earih, he was 
itred to be incorrect, on account ofits unavoida- 
\ unperfection, as has been already explained at 
o-e 18. 2d. It cannot be known positively 
fat was the original, state of fertilitj^ of most 
fivated soils in England, nor whether they were 
ojected to exhausting or improving cultivation, 

centuries before our information from history- 
gins. 3d. Lime has been there used lor a long 
16, and to great extent; and chalk and marl 
ire applied as manures during the time of the 
)man conquest, as stated by Pliny, (say 1700 
ars ago) — so that it cannot be always known 
lether a soil has received its calcareous ingredient 
\'m nature, or the industry of man. 4th. It is 
lown that severe cropping alier liming, and also 
tcessive doses of calcareous earth, have rcnder- 
I land almost barren: of which the following ex- 
acts offer suflicient proof: — 

IBefore 177S, [in East Lothian] the ouifichl did not 
i;eive any dung except what was left by the animals 
tized upon it. In many cases, outfield land was 
|ied; and often with singular advantage. The after 
tmagement was uniformly bad; it being customary to 
'op the limed outfield with barley and oats successive- 
.' so long as the crop w-as worth cutting. In thisw'ay 

merous fields suffered so severely as to be rendered 
■■ nost steril for half a century afterwards." Farmer's 

agazine, p. 53, Vol. 12. 

" An overdose of shell marl, laid perhaps an inch 
:ick, produces for a time large crops. But at last it 



renders the soil a caput mortuum, capable of neither 
corn nor grass; of which, there are too many exam- 
ples in Scotland, 8tc. Gentleman Farmer, p. -378. 

15. Yet the last writer (Lord KamesJ elsewhere 
states, (at page 379) that as much clay marl as 
conlains 1500 bolls, (on 9000 bushels) of pure cal- 
careous earth to the acre, is not an overdose in 
Scotland. 

16. "Marl. Of this substance, there are four sorts, 
rock — slate — clay — and shell marl. The three former 
are of so heavy a nature that they are seldom conveyed 
to any distance; though useful when found below a 
lighter soil. But shell marl is specifically lighter, and 
consists entirely of calcareous matter, (the broken 
and partially decayed shells of fish,) which may be 
applied as a top dressing to wheat and grass, when it 
would be less advantageous to use quicklime." [This 
is the kind of manure referred to in extract 5, and 
there more particularly described.] "In Lancashire 
and Cheshire, clay, or red marl, is the great source 
of fertilization, &c."— "The quantity used is enormous; 
in many cases about three hundred middling cart loads 
per acre, and the fields are sometimes so thickly cover- 
ed as to have the appearance of a red soiled fallow, 
fresh ploughed."— SZ/icZair's Code of Jgriculture, 
American Ed. (Hrriford)p. 138. 

This account of the Lancashire improvements 
made by red clay marl, closes with the statement 
that "the effects are represented to be beneficial 
in the highest degree" — which is fully as exact an 
account of profit, or increased j)roduction, as we 
can obtain of any other marling. Throughout, 
there is no hint as to the calcareous constituents 
of the soil, or the manure, or whether either rock, 
clay or slaie marls general! j^, are valuable for that, 
or for other reasons; nor indeed could we guess 
that they contained any calcareous earth, but for 
their being classed, with many other substances, 
under the general head of calcareous manures. 

17. "The means of ameliorating the texture of 
chalky soils, are either by the application of clayey 
and sandy loams, pure clay, or marl." — "The chalk 
stratum sometimes lies upon a thick vein of black 
tenacious marl, of a rich quality, which ought to he 
dug up and mixed with the chalk." — Code of Agricul- 
ture, p. 19. 

18. Dickson's Farmer's Companion. — The au- 
thor recommends "argillaceous marl" for the im- 
provement of chalky soils: and for sandy soils, 
"where the calcareous principle is in sufficient 
abundance, argillaceous marl, and clajey loams," 
are recommended as manures. 

19. "Chalky loam. The best manure for this soil 
is clay, or argillaceous marl, if clay cannot be had; 
because this soil is defective principally in the argilla- 
ceous ingredient." — Kirwan on Manures, p. 80. 

The evident intention and effect of the marling 
recommended in all the three last extracts, is to 
diminish the proportion of calcareous earth in the 
soil. 

20. In a Traveller''s Notes of an agricultural 
tour in England, in 1811, which is published in 
the third volume of the Edinburgh Farmer''s 
Magazine, the following passages relate to Mr. 
Coke's estate, Holkham, and to Norfolk gene- 
rally. 

"Holkham. — The soil here is naturally very poor, 
being a mixture of sand, chalk, and flint stones, with 
apparently little mixture of argillaceous earth — the 
subsoil, chalk or limestone every where." Page 486. 



86 



,0N CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



"As the soil of the territory [of Norfolk gpnerally] 
through which I passed, seems to have a sufficient mix- 
ture of calcareous earth naturally, I learn they do not 
often lime their lands; but clay marl has been found to 
have the most beneficial consequences on most of the 
Norfolk soils." — p. 487. 

21. "In Norfolk, they seem to value clay more than 
marl, probably because their sandy soils already contain 
calcareouf parts." — Kirwan onMunures,p. 87. 

From this and tlie preceding quotation it would 
ibllow, that the (ireat and celebrated improvements 
in Norfolk, made by marling, had actually ope- 
rated to lessen the calcareous pToporiion of the soil, 
instead of increasing it. Or, (as may be deduced 
from what will follow,) if so scientific and diligent 
an inquirer as Kirwan, was deceived on this very 
important point, it furnishes additional proof of the 
impossibility of drawing correct conclusions on 
this subject from European books — when it is left 
doubtful, whether the most extensive, the most 
jjrofitable, and the most celebrated improvements 
by "marling," in Europe, have in flict served to 
make the soil more or less calcareous. 

Most of the extracts which I have presented, 
are from British agriculturists of high character 
and authority. If such writers as these, while 
giving long and (in some respects) minute state- 
ments of marl, and marling, omit to tell, or leave 
their readers to doubt, whether the manure or the 
soil is the most calcareous— or what proportions of 
calcareous earth, or whether any, is present in 
either — then have I fully established that the 
American reader who may attempt to draw in- 
struction from such sources, as to the operation, 
eftects and profits of either marl or calcareous ma- 
nures, in general will be more apt to be deceived 
and misled, than enlightened. 

I have now to refer to an author, whose works, 
Avell known as they may be to others, had not come 
under my view until alter the publication of most of 
the foregoing extracts. Otherwise, Marshall would 
have been stated as an exception to the general 
silence of British authors as to the true and pre- 
cise nature of what they treated of as marl. But 
though he has not been, like others, so laulty as to 
leave" in doubt what was the character and value 
of the marls, of which he spoke, and the nature 
of their operation on the soils to which they were 
applied — still no other writer furnishes stronger 
proof of the general ignorance and disregard of 
the nature of marls and calcareous manures, and 
of their mode of operation; and even the author 
himself is not free from the same charge, as will be 
shown. I shall quote more at length from Mar- 
shall, because he presents the strongest opposition 
to what I have stated as to the general purport of 
publications on marling: and also, because, whate- 
ver may be their character, there is much to in- 
terest the reader in his accounts of the opinions 
and practices of those who have used calcareous 
manures longest, and most extensively, although 
without knowing what they were doing. 

In his Rural Economy of Norfolk, the "marls" 
and "clays" most used in the celebrated improve- 
ments of that county are minutely described, and 
the chemical composition stated — showing that 
both are highly calcareous. Of the "marls," or 
chalks, most used for manure in Norfolk, he analy- 
zed three specimens, and one of clay, and found 
the proportions of pure calcareous matter as fol- 
lows : 



7h\ 



Chalk marl of Thorp-market, contained, j\^^ 
Soft chalk of Thorp-next-Norwich, ^ 

Hard chalk ofSwaffham, almost pure — 
Clay marl of Hemsby, -j^'^- 

22. Of these he spoke previously and in genei 
terms, thus : 

"The central and northern parts of the distr 
abound, universally, with a whitish-colored chalk mi 
while the Fleg Hundreds, and the eastern coast, ; 
equally fortunate in a gray-colored clay marl. J 

"The first has, in all probability, been in use as | 
manure many centuries: there are oaks of considera 
size now going to decay in pits which have obviou 
been heretofore in use, and which, perhaps, still rem j 
in use, as marlpits. I 

"The use of clay marl, as a manure, seems to b 
much later discovery; even yet, there are farmers w 
are blind to its good effect; because it is not marl, 1| 
"clay;" by which name it is universally known. 

"The name, however, would be a thing of no impq 
were it not indiscriminately applied to unctuous earthilj 
general whether they contain, or not, any portion of c 
careous matter. Nothing is "marl" which is not wht 
for, notwithstanding the county has been so long anci 
largely indebted to Its fertilizing quality, her husba;| 
men, (^ven in this enlightened age, remain totally' 
norant of its distinguishing properties: through 
want of information much labor and expense is : 
quently thrown away. 

"One man seeing the good effect of the Fleg cl 
for instance, concludes that all clays are fertile, 
finding a bed of strong brick earth upon his farm, 1 
to work, at a great expense, to "claying:" — while 
other observing this man's miscarriage, concludes 1 
all clays are unprofitable; and, in consequence, is at 
expense, equally ill applied, of fetching "marl" fror 
great distance; while he has, perhaps, in his own fa; 
if judiciously sought after, an earth of a quality equi 
fertilizing with that he is throwing away his time ■ 
his money in fetching. Marshall's Norfolk Voll 
p. 16. 

Yet it is remarkable, that Marshall should 
have intimated whether the Norfolk soils W 
naturally calcareous, (as the two writers just 
fore quoted declare,) or not— and therefore we ' 
still left to guess whether these manures server 
increase the calcareous quality of soils aire; 
possessing that quality in a high degree — oii 
give it to soils devoid of it before. 

Other passages will now be quoted from 
same, and from other similar works of MarsliE 
to show the prevailing ignorance of the ingrediei 
and operation of the marls sometimes pria 
and sometimes contemned, with as little reasoi 
the one case as the other, by farmers in vari 
parts of England. 

23. "The principal part of his estate, however, 
a much shallower soil, not deeper than the plough gj 
and its present very amazing fertility he ascribes 
great measure, to his having clayed it. Indeed to i 
species of improvement the fertility of the Fleg E 
dred is allowed to be principally owing. • 

"Mr. F. gave me an opportunity of examining is 
clay pit, which is very commodious; the uncallo is 
tritiing, and the depth of the bed or jam he has not 1 sr^ 
able to ascertain. It is worked, at present, about sn 
or twelve feet deep. 

"The color of the fossil, when moist, is dark brcij 
interspersed with specks of white; and dries 
color lighter than that of fuller's earth; on being j 
posed to the air, it breaks into small die-like pieces. 

"From Mr. F's. account of the manner of^ its ac'| 
and more particulariy from its appearance, I judgf 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



87 



toe a brown marl, rather than a clay; and, on trying 
iliii acid, it proves to be strongly calcareous; effer- 
vcini;-, and hissing, more violently than most of the 
vit;- marls of this neighborhood: and what is still 
ri'i' interesting, the Hemsby clay is equally turbu- 
lit in acid as the Norwich marl, which is brought by 
vter forty miles into this country, at the excessive 
CJcnse of four shillings a load upon the staith; he- 
fees the land carriage. [The strength of this Hems- 
t clay is stated above.] 

•If IS somewhat extraordinary that Mr. F., sensible 
al intelligent as he is, should be entirely unacquaint- 
c\\\\\\ this quality of his clay; a circumstance, how- 
( >i-. the less to be wondered at, as the Norfolk farmers, 
i general, are equally uninformed of the nature and 
■)perties of marl." Marshall's Norfolk, Vol. II, page 
2. 

The following is a remarkable instance, in a par- 
ular district, of a clay, very poor in calcareous 
itter, being considered and used as valuable ma- 
re, and a very rich marl equally accessible, being 
emed inferior. 

24. "The marl is either an adulterate chalk, found 
ar the foot of the chalky steeps of the West Downs, 
ng between the chalk rock and the Maam soil, par- 
ting of them both — in truth, a marl of the first qual- 
; or a sort of blue mud, or clay, dug out of the area of 
IS district, particularly, I believe, on the south side 
the river. This is said to have been set on, with 
od effect; while the former is spoken of, as of less va- 
;; whereas, the white is more than three-fourths of it 
Icareous; while the blue does not contain ten grains, 
r cent., of calcareous matter." Marshall's Southern 
mnties, Vol. p. 175. 

The greater ])art of what are called marls in the 
llo wing extract, and used as manure, contain so 
tie calcareous earth, that whatever power they 
ay exert, must be owing to some other ingre- 
ent. Yet without Marshall's analysis, they would 
5 considered to deserve the character of calca- 
ous manures, as much as any others before 
imed. 

15. "The red earth which has been set upon the lands of 
is district, in great abundance, as "marl," — is much 
'it in a manner destitute of calcareous matter; and, 
' course, cannot, with propriety, be classed among 
rls. 

'Neverthless, a red fossil is found, in some parts of 
e district, which contains a proportion of calcareous 
atter. 
'The marl of Croxall (in part, of a stonelike, or 
aty contexture, and of a light red color) is the 
fichest in calcareosity: one hundred grains of it afford 
'\irly grains of calcareous matter; and seventy grains 
if fine, impalpable, red-bark-like powder.* 
"And a marl of Elford (in color and contexture va- 
ous, but resembling those of the Croxall marl) affords 
,3ar twenty grains: 

( "Yet the marl of Barton, on the opposite side of the 
|rent — though somewhat of a similar contexture, but 
' a darker more dusky color — is in a manner destitute 
if calcareosity! one hundred grains of it yielding little 
lOre than one grain — not two grains of calcareous 
katter. Neverthless, the pit, from which 1 took the 



[ 

:* Tliis marl is singularly tenacious of its calcareous matter; 
(issolving reniarkahly slowly. One liinidrcil iirains, roughly 
l3unded, was twenty-four hours in dissnlviiiL'; ami another hun- 
red, though pulverized to mere (hisi, (•.Jiiiiiiurd to eflisrvesce 
fvelvc hours; notwithstanding it \\ as liist saturated with water, 
Dd afterward shook repeatedly. The Breedim stone, rouzhly 
founded, dissolved in half the time; notwithstanding its extreme 
•ardness. 



specimens analyzed, is an inmense excavation, out of 
which many thousand loads have been taken. 

'^And the marls of this neighborhood (which mostly 
differ in appearance from those described, having gen- 
erally that of a blood-red clay, interlayered, and some- 
times intermingled, with a white gritty substance) are 
equally poor in calcareosity. 

One" hundred grains of the marl of Statfold (which 
I believe may be taken as a fair specimen of the red 
clays of this quarter of the district) afford little more 
than two grams of calcareous matter.* Yet this is 
said to be "famous marl;" and, from the pits which now 
appear, has been laid on in great abundance. 

"I do not mean to intimate, that these clays are alto- 
gether destitute of fertilizing properties, on their first 
application. It is not likely that the large pits which 
abound, in almost every part of the district, and which 
must havebeen fbrm ed at a very great expense, should 
have been dug, without their contents being productive 
of some evidently, or at least apparently, good effect, 
on the lands, on which they have been spread. 

I confess, however, that this is but conjecture; and 
it may be, that the good effect of the marls, first de- 
scribed being experienced, ihe fashion was set; and, 
the distinguishing quality being unknown, or not at- 
tended to, marls and clays were indiscriminately used." 
Marshall's Midland Covnties, Vol.1, p. 152. 

26. "On the southern banks of the Anker, is found a 
grey marl; resembling, in general appearance, the marl 
of Norfolk, or rather the uiUer's earth of Sunay. In 
contexture, it is loose and friable. 

"This earth is singularly prodigal of its calcareosity. 
The acid being dropped on its surface, it flies into 
bubbles as the Norfolk marl. This circumstance, 
added to that of a striking improvement, which I was 
sliown as being effected by this earth, led me to ima- 
gine, that it was of a quality similar to the marls of 
Norfolk. 

"But, from the results of two experiments — one of 
them made with granules formed by the weather, and 
collected on the site of improvement, the other with a 
specimen taken from the pit it appears that one hundred 
grains of this earth contain no more than six grains 
of calcareous matter! the residuum a cream colored 
saponaceous clay, with a small proportion of coarse 
sand." Marshall's Midland Counties, Vol. I. p. 155. 

The last extracts suggest a remark which 
ought to have been made earlier. When there is 
so much general ignorance prevailing among prac- 
tical farmers as to what they call marl, it cannot be 
expected that the most intelligent writers can be 
correct, when attempting to record their practices. 
When Arthur Young, Tor example, reports the 
effects of marl in fifty different localities, as known 
from the practice of perhaps more than several 
hundred individuals, it must be interred that he 
uses the term generally, as they did from whom 
his information was gathered — and in very few 
cases, if at all, as learned by his own analyses. 
Therefore, it may well be doubted whether the 
uncertainty as to the character of marl does not 
extend very generally to even the most scientific 
writers on agriculture. 

As the foregoing exhibits the use of "marls" 
destitute of calcareous earth, so the following 
shows under the name of sea sand, a manure 
which is in its chemical qualities a rich luarl (in 
our sense) or calcareous manure. 

27. "Sea-sand. This has been a manure of the distric', 
beyond memory, or tradition. 

"There are two species still in use: the one bea'ing 
the ordinary appearances of sea sand, as found at the 



' Lodged not in the substance of the cla)'; but in ifs natural 
cracks or fissures. 



88 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



mouths of rivers; namely a compound of the common 
sand and mud: the other appears, to the eye, clean 
fragments of bj'oken shells, without mixture; resemb- 
ling, in color and particles, clean-dressed bran of wheat. 

"By analysis, one hundred grains of the ibrmcr con- 
tain about thirty grains of common silicious sea sand, 
with a few grains of fine silt or mud; the rest is calca- 
reous earth, mixed with the animal matter of marine 
shells. 

"One hundred grains of the latter contain eighty- 
five grains of the matter of shells, and fifteen grains of 
an earthy substance, which resembles, in color and 
particles, minute fragments of burnt clay, or common 
red brick. 

"These sands are raised in different parts of Plymouth 
Sound, or in the harbor; and are carried up the estua- 
ries, in barges; and from these, on horseback, perhaps 
five or six miles, into the country; of com-so at a very 
great expense: yet witliout discviniiiiatioii, by men in 
general, as to their specific (jualitii/s. The shelly kind, 
no doubt, brought them into repute, and induced land- 
lords to bind their tenants to the use of them; but with- 
out specifying the sort — and the bargemen, of course, 
bring such as they can raise, and convey, at the least 
labor and expense. It is probable that the specimen 
first mentioned, is above par, as to quality: I iiave 
seen sand of a much cleaner appearance, 1 ravelling to- 
wards the fields of tliis (juarter of the country: and, near 
Beddiford; in North Devonsiiiro, I collected a specimen, 
under the operation of "melling" with mould, which 
contains eighty grains per cent, of clean silicious sand !" 
— MarshaiVs 'West of England, Vol. I. page 154. 

It iniojht be inferred from till these proofs of 
INIarshairs knowledge of calcareous earth consti- 
tuting the real value of marls, that he could scarce- 
ly miss the evident corroUary to that ])rujii)silion, 
that the valuable operation of caicaifnus iiiair.n-es 
is to render soils more calcareous — and that the 
knowledge of the nature of the manure and the 
soil, would sulliciently indicate when the applica- 
tion of the one to the other was judicious or not. 
But the following expression of opinion (^Mar- 
shaiVs Yorkshire, Vol. I. p. 377) is not only 
strongly opposed to those deductions, but to the 
general purport of all his truths which I have be- 
fore quoted. 

28. "Nothing at present but comparative experiments 
can determine the value of a given lime, to a given 
soil; and no man can, with common prudence, lime 
any land, upon a large scale, until a moral certainty of 
improvement has been established by experience." 

If this be true, then indeed is there no true or 
known theory, or established precepts, for apply- 
ing either lime, or any calcareous manure. It 
amounts to saying, that every new a|)plication is a 
mere experiment, the result of which cannot even 
be conjectured from any facts previously known of 
other soils and other manures. 

29. The next (luotation, which is from an edi- 
torial article in the Farmer''s Journal of July 28, 
1823, shows that tlie old opinion still prevails, that 
marl is profitable oidy on sandy lands; which opin- 
ion carries with it the inli'rence that it is the ar- 
gillaceous quality, rather than the calcareous, that 
operates. The editor is remarking on a new 
Igricultural compilation by a Rlr. Elkinson, and 
Wiculing the author tor his solcnm annunciation 
of the truism (in the editor's opinion,) that, "marl- 
ing on sand is more useful than on clay land." 
The reputation of Mr. Elkinson, says the editors, 

"may remain undisturbed among the farmers of Lin- 
colnshire for a long time, who may never have chanced 



1 

iivc. W lias oiirii iiccn 

in the subsoil, Vv'hich ti 
[ of water ; ] and it h; 
ploughing ought to be 
to the top. We ho^n- t! 
has before now bri n sri 
though at the aliu\ r ji:. 



to meet with the old proverb, or have taken a journ (; 
into the sandy district of Norfolk. We really do ! ?[ 
know whether it be as old Jervais Markham', or n 
but we have seen the ibllowing lines in black letter: 

He that marls sand, may buy land; 
He that marls moss, shall have loss; 
He that marls clay, throws all away!" 

The editor then passes to a subject on whi 
his admitted ignorance serves to prove that t 
improvement gained by marling could not be sii| 
ply the making a soil calcareous — for upon tti 
ground, when marl has once been plentifully giv«|l 
and the land afterwards worked poor, there can 
ncithi'i- RMson nor profit, in a second marling. Yi 
as if lilt! mode of operation was altogether u 
known, this passage Ibllovvs. 

"It was once asked of the editor by, a very good pnt 
tical Norfolk farmer, 'whether land which had been or' 
marled and worn out, would receive the same ben* 
from a second marling?' It was answered, that an i 
periment made on one field, or on one acre, woi 
the ])oint, but cunjcclure led to 7wihing cone. 
t lias oltrii been ohsi'rved that loose land, afi 
it cropped, deposited its m 
■\'oi\' 1). came more retent 
Ir . :, s:i--ested, that de 
'■'1. to lin.ig this marl agi:| 
ll'.e point here in qiiestn 
i! bv practice in both wa 
a, "(about 1306) such fa, 
had not reached the gentleman alluded to, althougl; 
veiy intelligent man." 

The singular ftict stated above, of marl, and a; 
of lime, sinking and forming a layer below t 
soil, IS stated by other British writers. No am 
result has been found in this country, so fiir aa; 
am informed. Nor do I believe that it can occ« 
except when the calcareous matter is too abo 
dant to form a chemical combination with the s^ 
or with the matters in the soil. According to i 
views of the manner in which calcareous ea_ 
acts, it must form such combinations in the sf 
to be useful — and if so combined, it cannot be 
parated, and sink through the soil by the force 
gravity, or any other cause. 

30. The next article is probably one of the lat 
publications on marl, yet contains as little 
truth, and ibr its length, as much that is false 
absurd, as if it had been written a century ago 
appears in the last number of the Quarterly Jwi 
nal of j/griculiure, (for Dec. 1834) and is tin 
quoted from the Magazine of Gardening and 
tany, and as written by Count Gyllenborg. 
no contradictory remarks are appended by eitli 
of the editors of these highly respectable journsi 
it may be considered as in some measure givj 
countenance to the opinions here presented 

Though the wTiter speaks of "acid in the Ian 
yet the succeeding part of the sentence wli 
speaks of "imbibing it fr-om stagnating w 
shows that no correct or definite idea was attacl 
to the term "acid." The entire piece is copi 

"Hoiv far marl contribuies to the fertility of i 
1st, Not materially, for it is devoid of every unct 
and saline matter. 2d, But instrumentally, itproa 
vegetation, by attracting the moisture, acids or oil 
the atmosphere, which enrich the land. As this qi 
ty becomes stronger by burning, how wisely would* 
farmers act in using ii after being calcined. It | 
motes vegetation, by destroying the acid actually in 
land, or removing that which it might be in dangei 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



89 



bibing from stagnating water, and hence, also, it may 

|rhap3 help to prevent a too acid disposition in the seeds. 

\/ dissolving every unctuous substance in the land, 

•lence arises a saponaceous mixture soluble in water, 

d fitted to enter into the pores of vegetables. By de- 

■oying the toughness of strong sdils, for, by its quick- 

crunibling in the air, tiie cohesion of a clayey soil is 

minished, it is rendered easier to cultivate, and more 

to carry on growth of plants. It gives greater solid- 

/■ and firmness to loose or sandy soils; and, as before 

ved, it contributes to their fertihty, by attracting 

ito this dry soil the nutritive contents of tlie air. There 

6 some who think that marl sliould not be laid on 

ndy soils; but experience has taught us to conclude 

herwise, having observed that the most beneficial ef- 

cts are produced from it on very liglit and sandy soils. 

[aii may hurt land by too long and a tim ]ilrnliful use 

" it; for, from its calcar;^oiis ipialiiw it iuueh rcsem- 

eslime. It soon dissolves and coiisiiiucs tlio fat of 

e land — and it loosens a clayey soil, so tliat it becomes 

ss retentive of moisture. Marl is, however, very 

fferent, according to its being more or less calcareous 

clayey; and therefore, judgement is more or hss 

cessary to adapt it to the nature of the soil. Some 

ave recommended it chiefly for wet and cold soils, and 

lany farmers have observed that it is most useful when 

iixed with rich manures. Neither of these observa- 

ons, however, seems to be correct; but a due care should 

e taken that this manure be adapted to the soil on 

rhich it is Liid." 



[NOTE G 2. Page 3G.] 

'HK EARLIEST KNOWN SUCCESSFUL, AVPLI- 
CATIOIVS OF FOSSIL SHELLS AS MANURE. 

The two old experiments described at page 36, 
iiough the onl)^ applications of fossil shells known 
me, previous to tiie commencement of my use 
if this manure, were not all which had been 
aade, and which being deemed failures, had been 
ibandoned and forgotten. Another, within a lew 
oiles of my residence, Avas brought to light and 
lotice afterwards, by an old negro, who was per- 
laps the only person then living, who had any 
knowledge of the facts. After I had found enough 
luccess in using this manure to attract to it some 
ittention, Mr. Thomas Cocke of Aberdeen was 
)ne of those who began, but still with doubt and 
lesitation, to use marl to some considerable ex- 
tent. One of his early applications was to the 
garden. The old gardener opposed this, and told 
lis master that he knew "the stufi' was good for 
lothing, because when he Avas a boy, his old 
Piaster (Mr. Cocke's father) had used some at 
Bonaccord, and it had never done the least good." 
Being asked whether he could show the spot 
tvhere this trial had been made, he answered that 
lie could easily, as he drove the cart which carried 
)ut the marl. The place was immediately sought, 
[t was on the most elevated part of a very poor 
ield, which had been cleared and exhausted fully 
1 century before. The marled space (a square of 
ibout half an acre) though still poor, was at least 
vvice as productive as the surrounding land, 
;hough a slight manuring ti-om the farm-yard had 
3een applied a few years before to the surround- 
ng land, and omitted on this spot, which was sup- 
losed to have been, from its appearance, the site 
)f some former dwelling house, of which every 
Jvidence had disappeared except the permanent 
mprovement of the soil usual from that course, i 
12 



A close examination showed some fragmowts of 
the hardest shells, so as to prove that the old man 
had not mistaken the spot. This, like other early 
applications, had been made on a spot too poor for 
marl to show but very small early eftects — and as 
only one kind of operation of any manure was 
then thought of, (that which dung produces,) it is 
not strange that both the master and servant 
should have agreed in the opinion that the appli- 
cation Avas useless, and have remained under that 
opinion until almost all remembrance of the expe- 
riment had been lost. 

There were also successful and continued uses 
of this manure in James City County, U\ Virginia, 
made earlier than mine; and still earlier by tlie 
Rev. John Singleton, in Talbot County, Marj'- 
land. It appears that the early (though chance 
directed) combination of putrescent manures with 
marl in both these places, served to prove the va- 
lue of the latter, and perhaps to prevent it being 
there al.«o abandoned as worthless, as in other 
cases. But though the application Avas continued, 
and Avitli great success and profit, the knoAvledge 
of these fiicts, and the example, extended very 
slowly: and the then Avant of communication 
among farmers, for }-ears kept all ignorant of 
these praclices, except in the immediate vicinity 
of the commencement of each. I have since en- 
deavored to ascertain the lime of the first applica- 
tions in James City, and have been informed that 
it Avas in 1816. Mr. Singleton's, in Maryland, 
Avere begim as early as 1805. His OAAm account 
of his practice (which will be annexed entire, as 
an interesting statement of the earliest profitable 
use of this manure,) AA^as first published in 1818, 
in the 4th volume of the Memoirs of tlie Phila- 
delphia Agricultural Society, (page 238.) The 
date of his letter is Dec. 31, 1817! My first ex- 
periment AA'as made the fbllov\'ing month (Jan. 
1818,) but more than a year before I met w'lXh. 
Mr. Singleton's publication, or had heard of any 
application of fossil shells, except the tAvo failures 
mentioned in page 36. But however beneficial 
may have been found the operation of marl in 
Talbot and in James Cily, it is e\'ident, from Mr. 
Singleton's letter, and from all other sources of in- 
formation, that the mode of oj^eration remained 
altogether uhsuspected by those who used it: and 
this Avas perhaps the principal cause Avliy the 
practice Avas so sIoav in spreading. It isnoAV thir- 
ty years since the first proofs were exhibited on 
the land of Mr. Singleton: yet, according to the 
report of the geological survey of the loAver part of 
Maryland, (submitted to the legislature of Mary- 
land at its recent session of 1834-5,) it appears, 
that though the value of marl is well understood, 
and much use of it made in Talbot county, and 
part of Queen Anne's, it also appears that almost 
no use has been made of it on the other and much 
more extensive parts of the Eastern Shore of Ma- 
ryland — and none Avhatever Avest of the Chesa- 
peake in that state, Avhere it is found in abun- 
dance. Such at least are the inferences from Mr. 
Ducatel's report, though in part drawn from indi- . 
rect testimony, more than direct and particular as- 
sertions. 

The slight, and almost contemptuous manner, in 
Avhich marl is mentioned by so Avell informed an 
agriculturist as Taylor, as late as 1814, Avhen }ii3 
Arator Avas published, (and which remains un- 
altered in his 3d edition of 1817,) proTes that al- 



90 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



most nothing was then known of the value oCthis 
nianure. All that seems to relate to our Ibssil shells 
is contained in the two Ibllowing passages : 

"Witho.it new accessions of vegetable matter, suc- 
cessive heavy dressings with liiTn% gypsum, and even 
marl, have been frequently found to terminate in im- 
poverishment. Hence it is' inferred, that minerals ope- 
rate as an excitement only to the manure furnislied by 
the atmosphere. From this fact results the impossibility 
of renovating an exhausted soil, by resorting to fossils, 
which will expel the poor remnant of life; and indeed 
if IS hardly probable ilwA dicine ivisdom has lodged in the 
boiucls of the earth, the manure necessary for its sur- 
face." — Arator p. 52, 2nd Ed. Baltimore. 

"Of lime and marl we have ah abundance, hut ex- 
perience does not entitle me to sa}f any thing of 
cither."— p. 89. 

From the Re U.John Singldonjothc Hon. Win. TUghman. 



"Your first question is, 'whether wh.rit I use be marl,or 
soil mixed with shells?' 

"Whether it be marl or not, I will not pretend to deter- 
mine, as I liave seen nodt'scriptioii of marl that answers 
exactly t<i il;hut Mr. Tench Tilghman informed me, 
he ha'i sri-n :i di'scription of marlusedin Scotland, ex- 
actly siiiiiliii' in what 1 use on the larm on which I re- 
side, and which is tlie improved land you mention. I 
have not seen the account myself. However, this, and 
all mixtures of broken marine shells, of which there is a 
great variety, are now denominated marl, here. Wliat 
I consider tiie best, and \\hich I most use, is composed 
of small parts of marine shells, chiefly scallop shell, 
about one-eighth of an inch square, or so/aewhat 
longer or smaller, with scarce any sand or soil with it: 
some of it seems to be petrified, and is dug up in lumps, 
like stone, from four or five, to forty or fifty pounds in 
weight, liard to break even with the edge of an axe, 
and will remain for years, tumbled about with the 
plough, be-fore it is entirely broken to pieces, and mix- 
ed with the soil; indeed you may observe it in some 
parts of the bank, where the soil has been washed from 
it, appearing like rock stone; but if broken and pulver- 
ized a little, it ellervesces very much with acids. It lies 
from three to five and six feet deep, from the surface 
of a light or sandy soil, on the banks of the cove; but 
how deep the marl, or bed of shells goes, we cannot 
ascertain, having never dug througji it. When wc get 
from two to four feet deep into it, the water springs, 
so that we have never gone deeper, but fill up the hole 
with the surface soil, and open another. It does not 
lie level, but waving, sometimes dipping so deep that 
we lose it; nor is it of one color, but some white, like 
dry mortar, some the color of yellow ochre, some red, 
like red ochre, and some blueish: but I do not know 
any difference in the quality, from the color. In dig- 
ging, it is generally loose and crumbly, but mixed with 
hard lumps as above described: we find sometimes whole 
shells of scallop, oyster, and barnacles. The kind I 
estimate most, is of the foregoing description, and I am 
of opinion it lies at dilPjrent depths, under the whole 
of this peninsula, which has been gained from the 
water, and that the shells are of the dilierent kinds of 
fish which inhabited the waters wdiile they covered 
the land. In some places, at heads of coves, I have 
traced the shells by cutting a ditch from three to five 
feet deep, down the valley, and even through the 
marsh, till I came to tide water; but in this kind of low 
ground there were more whole, and large shells, and 
none of the large stone-like lumps above mentioned. 
It appears as if it had been the bottom of the creek, 
and as if covered by the water more lately than the 
first described. All these are on this farm. At my other 
farm, where my uncle formerly lived, and which is at 
the head of this creek, I find it by digging deep into 
the ditches, in the meadow ground, which empty into 
thtt head of the creek: but that kind difiers from what 



I have here; as, besides the scallop shells, which ai, 
not so much reduced as here, there is, for perche 
together, the clar.i shell, perfectly whole, hut so sof 
t!iat when thrown out of the ditch and exposed to th 
air, they soon fall away to powder: but the scallo 
shell seems most abundant; and of this kind of shel 
fish we have no knowledge. The beds of shell are t 
be discovered in many places, on the edges of th 
creek, and even out into the water; and are ibun 
thro);g:,out the county, in most places where carefulllj 
sought for, but generally, I believe, a good deal mixej 
with sand. However, I have no doubt they may a 
be usefully applied as improvers of the soil: they ai 
now coming into the use of many persons in thi, 
county, who have discovered them on their land, an, [ 
have adopted a regular system of manuring. 

"Your next question is, 'to what kind of soils, 
how it is applied; as a top dressing or ploughed in^ 

"I have applied it to all the soils on my farm, som[ ^i 
of v,-liirh is a cold white clay, and wet; others a ligl 
loam, and sandy, I find it useful to each kind, an 
manure my hintl all over with it, without distinclioil, 
and to advantage; jiittiiie; a smaller quantity upon tfj ij 
looser soils. 1 haw ;;:.j:ii,,l it as a top dressing on eld 
ver, and also where (■ln\or iias not been sown, with 
view to impi'oving the grass, and also to be satisfiGi 
wliether it would not be best for the ground, to let it li 
spread on tlie surface, for a year before the ground wi 
put into cultivation. But it has not answered my expet 
tation. I could not perceive any advantage from th; 
mode of apj.lication. I now constantly apply it 1 
the ground cnHive.teil in corn; carting it out in tlie wia 
ter and sprine;, ai;d ] lilting on liom iwenly to Ibrtr 
cartloads ]iei- acie. according to tlie ground, and th 
previous qnanlity that had been put on, in former cui 
tivations, dividing each load into from four to eiglrj 
small heaps, fur the greater ease in spreading, accorc 
ing to the size of the load. Some is put on before, ar 
some after tlie gi'ound is broken up, but it is all workt 
info the soil by the cultivation of the corn, and itnev 
fails of considerably im[ roving the crop of corn, 
also the ground wherever the marl is, especially 
largest quantity. There is a small green moss, an 
black moist appearance, on the suiffice of the grounij 
when not cultivated; as you perceive about old walE 
and in strong ground. Though the preceding is tt 
common mode in which I use tlie marl, I do not thinij 
it the best; I mix some in my farm yard, with tlie farm 
yard and stable manure; and would prefer mixing arj 
a],plying all that I use thus mixed, but for the lab* 
of double cartage, which 1 cannot as yet accomplisl- 
manuring so largely as I do. I cultivate one hnndre 
acres yearly, and constantly manure the whole of whi 
I cultivate; employing only four carts, and four han( 
with the carts, which do al' the manuring and cartiri 
on the farm. 

"Your next question is, 'what has been my rotation 
crops, and mode of cultivating, since I have used thI 
manure?' 

"Since I began to use the marl, and berid my attei 
tion to improvement by manure, I have cultivated onl 
corn and wheat, sowing my ground in clover, an 
using the plaster. Instead of cultivating all my grour 
in corn, and sowing wheat on it as heretofore, I dividel 
my cultivation into two parts, of fifty acres each, pui 
ting one part into corn, which I was able to accomplisi 
manuring time enough for the corn, and making a fa 
low of the other part, manuring as much of it asi 
could accomplish before the time for sowing whea 
and disregarding, in a degree, ajl smaller crops, whiti 
I could not attend to, as an object, without incre 
my number of hands, and interfering with the 
business. I went on in this manner, till I found I c^ 
easily accomplish manuring one hundred acres and 
wards, per annum. Having got my ground to that s' 
that I can risk making a crop without manure, I 
now about discarding fallow, being able to manure 
whole hundred acres time enough for cropping in 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



91 



ring, by beginning to manure for the next year as 
on as the spring jnanuring is iinishecl. I sliall in fu- 
re have no wheat in fallow, but sow it after corn and 
^ler crops, from which lam satisfied I can make more 
)m my ground than by naked fallow, which I always 
nsidered unprofitable, though you made more wheat, 
cept for the advantage of having more time to ma- 
Ire. The standing annual force on my farm is eight 
nds, (men,) witli ons liirad by the month. Of these 
nds four are employed with the carts; two in plough- 
j, harrowing, &c. for the cultivation of the crop; 
d the other two or three, as may be, do the black- 
lith's and carpenter's work, as also the fencing and 
her work necessary on a fai-m: the six hands employ- 
1 with the carts and ploughs, are not taken oli for 
her business, except in the time of harvest, and sow- 
g wheat, when they are probably stopped. I do not 
brk so much with the plough as formerly, but more 
ith the harrow, which lessens and quickens the labor 
cultivation, keeps the ground cleaner, and, I think, 
better tilth. Occasiooally I hire or employ some 
omen, for hoeing work and spreading manure. I 
ush my ground in large lands, and harrow and roll as 
may require; then, instead of listing, as common, 
ark it out each way with a plough, very shoal, so as 
Dt to disturb the grass ploughed down, and after drop- 
ingthe corn, cover it withlhe plough or harrow, and 
nuiediately put in the harrow, keeping it going, as 
le weather will permit, till just before harvest, 
rhen we plough the ground, and finish the culti- 
ation with the harrow, except something should 
ccur, making it necessaiy to plough again after 
arvest. This I have found the best mode of cultiva- 
.on for corn. I plant my corn about four feet apart 
iich way, and have from three to five stalks in a hill, 
r cluster, for I endeavor to keep down the hill, and 
ave the ground as level as possible. In saving my 
orn crop, I cut it up, without pulling it from the stalk 
s usual, and cart it in all together, then husk it out, 
3avi!ig the husk to the stalk: I lay these near my feed- 
ig yard, and throw them into it twice a day: this gives 
'sa'large quantity of strong healthy food fortne cattle, 
irhich serves them all winter, and keeps them in good 
ondition without any other food; makes a large quaa- 
ity of excellent manure, and a fine dry feeding yard. 
Vs opportunity can be found, we cart marl, fuller's 
:arth, clay, and any good soil that is convenient, into this 
'ard, which being mixed with the stalks, and straw, or 
Cny thing else, penning the cattle on it througli the 
vinterand summer, instead of penning on the field, 
n the common way, we have a large q'uantity of ma- 
uire to go out in the fall, and next winter; it is put into 
he fhdd, in the intermediate rows, between the rows 
)f mad, as fir as it will go, and they will get mixed 
a the culiivatioa. We also convert the scouring of 
)ur ditches, the head-lands of the fields, and all waste- 
jrouid that we can, into manure, by carting litter from 
the woods, yard manure, or litter, &c. &,c. and mixing 
with them; so tliat I can nearly, or quite, now, accom- 
plish making farm-yard and this kind of manure, ^uf- 
ficieiit to go over my whole hundred acres, annually. 
For the two last years, I have made more manure than 
I could accomplish or elfect carrying out, though I 
have manured from ten to twenty acres more than my 
Ihundred, each year, with part marl and part farm-yard, 
'but not the whole with both, as I hope to be able to 
do in future; but it will be necessary to increase my 
carting force to elfect it, and I clearly see, I can raise 
'sufficient manure for the purpose; heretofore I have 
manured my corn-ground, fifty acres, with marl, and 
my fallow with part farm-yard manure, and part marl, 
as mentioned beibre; so that you will perceive the im- 
provement maile on my soil "has not been effected by 
marl alone, but in conjunction with farm-yard manure, 
clover and plaster, and by making it a point to manure 
with something all the ground I put into cultivation; so 
that every time I cultivated a field, that field was im- 
proved, and not in any degree impoverished by the cul- 



tivation. By this means, and the divine assistance, I 
have effected that improvement of my farm, which is so 
very striking to the observation of ever}^ person ac- 
quainted with it. I can say nothing as to the compari- 
son of crops, before and since my improvement: it has 
been a progressive thing for many years, and, till I 
adopted the present plan, I was an experimental farm- 
er, trying every thing I met with in books, or heard of; 
so that there is scarce any rotation of crops, or mode ol 
cultivation, but what I have tried. 

'This I believe, will answer all your questions, ex- 
cept as to the time when I began to use the marl, and 
how soon I experienced the beneficial elfect of it?— 
being your fourth question. 

'Tn August, lS(j5, in digging down a bank on the 
side of a cove, for the purpose of making a causeway, 
I observed a shelly appearance, which it struck me 
might improve clay soil; I took some of it immediately 
to tiie house, and putting it into a glass with vinegar, 
found it eifervesced very much; this determined me to 
try it as a manure; accordingly, in September, I carted 
out about eighty cart loads, and put it on a piece of 
ground, fallow, jjreparing for wheat, trying it in dif- 
ferent proportions, at the rate of from iweiity-seven to 
about a hundred loads per acre, and the ground was 
sown in wheat. I could not, myself, be satisfied that 
there wasany diiierence through the winter and spring, 
although general Lloyd, who was viewing it with me 
in the spring, thought he could perceive some difier- 
ence, in favor of the marl; but at harvest time, the 
wheat, though not more luxuriant in growth, or better 
head, was considerably thicker on the ground; and after 
the wheat was taken off, the ground where the marl 
had been put was set with white clover, no clover be- 
ing Oil the grciiiid on either side of it. The next year, 
!.:)(), J ili^r()\.red it in the drain into the head ot the 
co\ e, which 1 iiuiuediately ditched, and from the ditch 
put out seven hundred loads, on the fallow ground. The 
effect, as to the wheat and clover, vvas the same, (tiiis 
was put, for experiment, at the rate of from forty to a 
hundred and twenty cart-loads per acre,) though the 
marl was not of the same kind as the other, but more 
mixed with sand and surface soil, being taken from the 
low ground, by ditching, and all mixed together. I 
also tried it on corn ground, spread out as above men- 
tioned, and tbund the etfect immediate, as to the corn; 
and in tlie same manner as above described, as to the 
wlieat sown on the corn ground. This induced me to 
persevere in the use of it, which I have done ever since, 
adopting the mode I mentioned before, and putting it at 
first from forty to sev-nty loads perci,cre, till I have now 
come down as low as eighteen or twenty loads per acre, 
going the third time over the ground with it. 

"I believe I have now answered all your inquiries, 
as well as I can, except as to the average comparison 
of the past and present crops, which 1 cannot well do, 
for the reasons above given, ami also that my fields are 
entirely changed, neither containing the same grounds, 
nor the same quantity of ground in each; but 1 believe I 
shall not be much out of the way, if I say, that I think 
the soil now capable of producing between two and 
three times as much, per acre, as it would before 1 be- 
gan to use the marl; and though the marl has not solely 
produced the improvement, yet the improvement would 
have been far short of vvhat it is, if it had not been for 
the marl, which has contributed, in a very large degree, 
towards it; and no small matter in favor of the marl is, 
that, by the blessing of God on my endeavors, I have, 
in twelve years, been enabled to improve three hundred 
acres of ground, to the pitch that these are, and am 
now in a fair way of increasing in the same ratio that a 
snov/-ball increases as it is turned over. 

"I fear you will not be able to read, and hardly to 
understand, this tedious letter, in many parts; if vou 
can, and it is in any degree satisfactory to you, I shall 
be compensated, and will cheerfully answer any in- 
quiries, in future, that you may wish to make. The 
first favorable opportunity, which may probably be by 



92 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



in the spring, I propose sending yon a 
marl, which may be more satisfactory than 



some friend, 

small bag of marl, which may be more satisfactory 1 

any description. 

JOHN SINGLETON. 

Talbot County, Md. Dec. 31, 1817. 



[NOTE H. Page 49.] 

GYPSEOUS EARTH OF JAMES RIVER, AND THE 
GREEN BIARL, OF NEW JERSEY, BOTH BE- 
LONGING TO THE "green SAND FORMA- 
TION." 

Tke passage in the text describing generally 
the gypseous earth of Prince George county, is 
left as it stood in the first edition, though much 
more full developements have since appeared. 
The first piece on the subject, to which the read- 
er is referred, commences at page 207 Vol. I. of 
Farmers' Register. It is a full and minute ac- 
count of the beds in my neighborhood of what I 
have called gypseous earth, and the reasons stat-ed 
at length for believing it to be the same earth 
known in New Jersey under the name of marl. 
At that time I had never met with a specimen of 
the latter substance, and only inferred its qualities 
and its chemical constitution (in certain respects) 
from the loose and general, and very unsatisfac- 
tory statements previously published respecting 
that earth. Other subsequent notices in the Far- 
mers' Register, at pp. 272, 572,) present addition- 
al, facts or reasons in support of the identity of these 
formations. Afterwards Professor William B. Ro- 
gers discovered what geologists call green sand, 
intermingled with many of the bodies of marl near 
Williamsburg, and in an interesting communica- 
tion to the Farmers' Register, page 129, Vol. II. 
in which this discovery is announced, he shows 
what the green sand is, and that it constitutes the 
valuable portion of what has been erroneously 
called marl in New Jersey, Mr. R. had not tlicn 
Been my earlier account of gypseous earth — but 
reasoning upon geological grounds he inferred that 
the true green sand formation would probably be 
found higher up the country. He has since visit- 
ed and e.xamiued the bed of what I had called 
gypseous earth, at Coggin's Point, Tarbay, and 
Evergreen, (in Prince George county,) and Jias 
found it to be the green sand formation, as was an- 
ticipated, and at the same tune, confirmed my 
opinion of the identity of this earth with the New 
Jersey "marl," The green sand however in Vir- 
ginia, so far as yet exposed to examination, is not 
to compare in richness with the best of New Jer- 
sey. Tile very little as yet known of the practical 
use, or measure of the value of this earth as ma- 
nure, is in the paper first referred to above. The 
length of that piece and of Mr. Rogers', and their 
having been already published in the Farmers' 
Register, forbid their being again presented in 
this place: and in addition, it is^expocted that Pvlr. 
Rogers' more recent examinalions will enable him 
to lay before the public a more correct and lull ac- 
count, which will of course be more interesting 
than the early views taken when the existing facts 
were but partially known — and so far as my own 
investigations went, were known to one who had 
nothing of the geological knowledge necessary to 
make proper use of the factf5 observed. 



[NOTE I. Page 50.] 

THE CAUSE OF THE INEFFICACY OF GYTSUB 
AS A MANURE ON ACID SOILS. 

I do not pretend to explain the mode of opera 
f ion by which g\ | sum produces its almost magi 
benehts: it would be ccpially hopeless and ridicu; 
lous for one having so little knowledge of the sue 
cessful practice, to attempt an explanation, ii 
which so many good chemists, and agricultuiisi 
both scientific and practical, have completely fail 
ed. There is no operation of nature heretofbr 
less understood, or of which the cause, or agent 
seems so totally disproportioned to theeflect, asthli 
enormous increase of vegetable growth from 
very small quantity of gypsum, in circumstance 
favorable to its action. All other known manures! 
whatever may be the nature of their action, re 
quire to be applied in quantities very far exceed; 
ing any bulk of crop expected from their use. Bli 
one bushel of gy])sum, spread over an acre c 
land fit for its action, may add more than twent 
times its own weight to a single crop of clover. 

However wonderful and inscrutable the ferti'j 
izingpower of this manure may be, and admittin 
its cause as yet to be hidden, and entirely beyon 
our reach — still it is jwssible to show reasons wh 
gypsum cannot act on many situations, where a 
experience has proved it to be Avorthless. If" thii 
only can be satislactorily explained, it will removk 
much of the uncertainty as to the efliscts to be cx) 
pected: and the farmer may thence learn on wht 
soils he may hope for benefit fi-om this manure- 
on what it will certainly be thrown away — and b; 
what means the circumstances adverse to its ac 
tion may be removed, and its efficacy thereby sei 
cured. This is the explanation that I shall afii 
tempt. 

If the 'vegetable acid, which I suppose to exii 
in what I have called acid soils, is not the oxalic 
(which is the particular acid in sorrel,) at le 
every vegetable acid, being composed of diflleren 
proportions of the same elements, may easil 
change to any other, and all to the oxalic acid( 
This, of all bodies known by chemists, has th 
strongest attraction for lime, and will take it fror 
any other acid winch was before combined with : 
— and lor that purpose, tlie oxalic acid will let g 
any other earth or metal, wdiicli it had before hel 
in combination. Let us then observe what woul 
be the effect of tlie known chemical action of f hes 
substances, on their meeting in soils. If oxali 
acid was produced in any soil, its immediate eflec 
would be to unite with its proper proportion of lime 
if enough was in the soil in any combination what) 
ever. If the lime was in such small quantity a 
to leave an excess of oxalic acid, that excess wouli 
seize on the other substances in the soil, in the or 
dcr of their mutual attractive force; and one 0( 
more of such substances are always jiresent, ar 
magnesia, or more certainly, iron and alumina 
The soil then would not only contain some propop 
lion of the oxalate of lime, but also the oxalate ;n 
either one or more of the other substances nam 
Let us suppose gypsum to be applied to this e 
This substance, (sulphate oi^ lime) is compose 
sulphuric acid and lime. It is applied in a fin 
pulverized state, and in quantifies from ha 
bushel to two bushels the acre— generally 
more than one bushel. As soon as the earth S! 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



93 



ade wet enough for any cliemicul decomposition 
take place, the oxalic acid must let go its base oi 
n, or alumina, and seize upon and combine with 
5 lime that Ibrmed an ingredient ol' the g\'jsum. 
he sulphuric acid lelt free, will combine with the 
)n, or the akimina of tiie soil, Ibrniing copperas 
the one case, and alum in the otiier. The gyp- 
'}n no longer exists — and surely no more satisti^ic- 
ry reason can be given why no ettect Irom it 
lould follow. The decomposition of the gypsum 
xs served to form two or perhaps three other sub- 
ances. One of them, oxalate of lime, I suppose 
be highly valuable as manure: but the very 
nail quantity that could be formed out of one or 
/en two bushels of gyj;)sum, could have no more 
e etiect on a whole acre, than that small 
iantity of calcareous earth, or farm-yard manure. 
'■'<■ he other substance certainly Ibrmed, copperas, is 
lown to be a poison to soil and to plants — and 
um, of which the formation would be doubtful, I 
jlieve is also hurtful. In such small quantities, 
owever, the poison would be as little perceptible 
the manure — and no apparent eflect whatever 
)uld follow such an application of gypsum to an 
".id soil. So small a proportion of oxalic acid, or 
iiy oxalate other than ot" lime, would suffice to 
^compose and destroy the gypsum, that it would 
ot amount to one part in twentj^ thousand of the 

);i. 

Why gypsum sometimes acts as a manure on 
oidd soils, when applied in large quantities for the 
a mce, is equally well explained by the same theo- 
Ib r. If a handful, or evTn a spoonful of gypsum is 
'■•■ ut on a space of six inches square, it" would so 
ill mch exceed in proportion all the oxalic acid that 
a Duld speedily come in contact with it, that all 
« rould not be decomposed — and the ])art that con- 
al nued to be gypsum, would show its peculiar \)ow- 

rs perhaps long enough to improve one crop. But 
ii s tillnge scattered these little collections more 
ilii qually over the whole space — or even as rej^eat- 
8i d soaking rains allowed the extension of the at- 
fi ractive powers — applications like these would also 
^i] e destroyed, after a very short-lived and limited 
'ij ,ction. 

[1 Soils that are naturally calcareous,' cannot con- 
IB ain oxalic aeid combhied with any other base than 
li ;me. Hence, gypsum applied there, continues 
if be gypsum — and exerts its great fi^rtilizingpow- 
J ras in the counties of Loudoun and Frederick. But 
ill !ven on these most suitable soils, this manure is said 
lot to be certain and uniform in its effects — and of 

ourse more certain results are not to be looked for 
'ivith us. I have not undertaken to explain its oc- 
. :asional failures any more than its general success, 
' in the lands where it is profitably used — but only 
vhy it cannot act at all, on lands of a different 
cind. 

■ The same chemical action being supp.osed, ex- 
:)lains why the power of profiting by gypsum 
' hould be awakened on acid soils after making 
hem calcareous — and why that manure should 
;eldom fail, when applied mixed with very large 
luaniities of calcareous earth. 

[NOTE K. Page 61.] 

ESTIMATES OF THE COST OP LABOR APPLIED 
TO iWAULlNG. 

Before we can estimate with any truth the ex- 
pense of improving land by marling, it is neoes- ' 



sary to fix the fair cost of every kind of labor ne- 
cessary ibr the purpose, and Ibr a length of time 
not less than one year. We very otten hear guesses 
of how much a day's labor ol a man, a horse, or 
a wagon and team, may be worth — and all are 
wide of the truth, because they are made on wrong 
premises, or no premises whatever. The only 
correct method is to reduce every kind of labor to 
its elements — and to fix the cost of every particu- 
lar necessar}/ to furnish it. Tliis I shall attempt: 
and if my estimates are erroneous in any particu- 
lar, others better informed may easily correct my 
calculation in that resj;ecf, and make the necessary 
allowance on the final amount. Thus, even my 
mistakes in the grounds of these estimates, will 
not prevent true and valuable results being derived 
from them. 

The following estimates were made in 1828, ac- 
cording to the prices of that year. I shall make 
no alteration in any of the sums, because there is 
no co!isiderable difference at this time, (January 
1832,) and the least alteration would make it ne- 
cessary to change the after calculations founded 
on them. But no one estimate will suit for years 
of different prices. W any one desires to know 
the value of labor when corn (lor example) is 
higher or lower, he must ascertain the difli?rence 
inthat item, and add or deduct, so as to correct 
the en or. 

Cost of the labor of a vegro man in 182S. 

Hire for the year, payable at the end, - jf^38 00 
Food — 19i bushels of corn at 40 

cents, - - 7 80 
Add 10 per cent, for 

waste in keeping, 78 

Meat and fish, &c. 9 00 

Interest for one year on §17 58, 
paid for food. 

Clothing — 6 yards coarse woollen 
cloth, at 50 cents, 

12 yards cotton, lor sum- 
mer clothes and two 
shirts, at 12 cents. 

Blanket at ;j^l 50, once in 
two years — yearly, - 

Shoes and mending. 

Taxes — State, 47 cents — county 47 
— poor 3.3 — road, suppose 
1 dollar. 

His share of expense of quar- 
ters, fuel, and sending to 
mill, - . - - 

Nursing when sick, (exclu- 
sive of medical aid,) 



$17 5S 



1 05 



#72 



$86 50 



Add 20 per cent, on the whole of the above 
ibr cost of superintendence, waste, wanton 
damage to stock, tools, &c., and thefts. 

Total expense per year, 
Time lost — Sundays and 

holydays, 58 days 

Bad weather 
and half ho- 
lydays, 20 

Sickness, 10 



From 365, deduct 88, leaves 277 working days: 



94 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



wliichmakes the cost of each working clay 31^ cents. 

Remarks. 

The hire was fixed at the average price obtain- 
ed that year for ten or twelve young men hired 
out at the highest bids, for field labor. According 
to our established custom, all the expenses of 
medical attendance, and loss of time from tlie 
death of a slave occurring when he is hired, are 
paid, or deducted from the hire by the owner — 
and tlierefore are oniiWed in this estimate. By 
supposing tlie slav^e to bs hired by his employer, 
instead of being owned, the calculation is made 
more simi)le, and therefore more correct. 

Cost of the labor of a negro woman. 

Hire for the year, - - - $10 00 
Food, - - - - 12 95 
Clothing, blanket, and shoes, - - 6 50 
Taxes, quarters, fuel, mill, nursing, 8tc,. 7 19 
Add 20 per cent, as before, for superinten- 
dence, &c., - - - 7 53 



Total yearly cost, 



#44 67 



Suppose lost time, 108 days, leaves working days 
257, at 17J cents for each. 

Nearly all the women who are usually hired 
out, are wanted by persons having few or no other 
slaves, as cooks, or for some other emploj'iiient 
at which they are more useful than at field labor 
— and their price is nearer fitleen dollars in these 
cases. But when there is no demand for such pur- 
jioses, women for field labor will not bring more 
than ten dollars. 

A boy of thirteen or fourteen would hire for 
more than the foregoinir estimate of the hire of a 
woman, but would not lose half the time Itom 
sickness and bad weather, and therefore may be 
supposed to cost the same per day, or seventeen 
and one-third cents. A girl, fifteen or sixteen 
years, for similar reasons, may be put at the same 
j)rice. 

Cost of the labor of a horse. 

First cost of a good work horse, ^-80 00 
— supposed to last five years at work, 
makes the yearly wear, - - $\6 00 

Interest for one year on $30 00 — $4 80 

—tax, 12 cents, - - - - 4 92 



20 bbls. of corn at $2 00—3,500 lbs. of 

fodder at 50 cents the hundred, - $57 50 
Add 10 per cent, for waste in keeping, 5 75 



-.f20 92 



Interest on .$63 25, for one year, - $3 79 
Share of yearly expense forcorn-houso, 47 

Total yearly cost. 



■ 4 26 

#38 44 



Lost time, 93 days, leaves 267 working days, at 33 
cents. 

A m.ile eats less corn than a horse, but more 
hay, and lives longer — and may be considered as 
costing one-fifth less — or yearly cost — iij^TO 00 — 
anddail}', 26| cents. 

A tumbril for marling, will cost when new, $25 00 



It will last two years, or (what is the same 
thing) if that sum will pay lor all repairs, for 
two years — its wear per year, is $12 J 

Interest on $25 00 for a year, - - l j 

Cost per year, $14 ( 

And at 267 working days — cost per day five cents. 

In the estimate of the cost of horse labor, 
charge is made for attendance, because that I 
part of the labor of the driver, and forms part 
his expense. No charge is made for grazing, bi 
cause enough corn and hay are allowed for evei 
day in the year — and when grass is part of h 
food, more than as much in value is saved in hi 
dry food. No charge is made for stable or littei 
as the manure made is supposed to compens 
those expenses. 

It may be supposed that the prices fixed lil 
corn, and fodder or hay, are too low for an averag 
Such is not my opinion. The price is fixed at tl 
beginning of the year, when it is always com par; > 
lively low, because it is too soon for purchasers 
keep shelled corn in bulk, and the market is glu 
ted. Besides, the allowance for waste during tl 
year''s use (10 per cent.) makes the actual pri(; 
equal to two dollars and twenty cents on July Is 
The nominal country price of corn in January, . 
almost always on credit — and small debts for coi 
are the latest and worst paid of all. The farm' 
who can consume any additional portion of h 
crop, in employing profitable labor, becomes h 
own best customer. The corn supposed to I 
used, by these estimates, is transferred on the fici 
of January, without even the trouble of sheliir! 
or measuring, from A. B. corn-seller, to J. 
B. marler, and instantly paid for. Two dolla! 
|ier barrel at that early time, and obtained with ;' 
little trouble from any purchaser, would be a bett 
regular sale, than the average of prices and pa 
ments have afforded tor the last eight years. 



COST OF MARLING, 

Founded on the foregoing estimates of the cost 
labor. 

From the beginning of November 1823, to tli 
3lRt of JNlay 1824, a regular force, of two horsi 
and suitable hands, was employed in marling d 
Coggin's Point, on every working day, unless pri 
vented by bad weather, wet and soft roads, 
some pressing labor of other kinds. The sam 
two horses were used, without any change, 
indeed, they had drawn the greater part of all t\\ 
marl carried out on the farm, since 1818. Tlj 
best of the two .was seventeen years old — bothi 
middle size, and both worse than any of my othlj 
horses, which were kept at ploughing. 

The following estimates were made on a co! 
nccted portion of this time and labor, and upt 
my own personal observation and notes of tjij 
work, from the beginning to the end. It was vei 
desirable to me, to know the exact cost of soni 
considerable job of marling, attended with certa; 
known difficulties, and on any particular mode i 
estimating the expense: for although the £ 
degree of difficulty, and of cost of labor, migij 
never again be met with, still, any such estima 
would furnish a tolerable rule, to app!}^, in a mof 
fied form, to any other undertaking of this kin 



'PART III— APPENDIX. 



95 



! estimates may be even more useful toother 
rsons— as they will serve generally to prove 
at the grealesf obstacles to the execulion of this 
provemcnt, are less alarmmg, and more easily 
ercome, than any inexperienced persons would 
ppose. 

Boih these jobs were attended with uncommon 
fficuhies, in the unusual thickness of the super- 
cuniljent eainh, compared to that of the iossil 
ells worth digging, and on account of the dis- 
nce, and amount of ascent to the field. The 
St job was so much more expensive than Avas 
iticipated, that it may perhaps be considered as a 
lure — but as the account of its expense had 
,en kept so carefully, it will be given, just as if 
ore success and profit had been obtained. This 
ork was commenced April 14th, 1S24. The bed 
' marl for the upper six feet of its thickness, is 
y and firm, though easy to dig, and rich. It has 
average strength of fVo — tlie shells mostly 
ilverized, and the remaining earth more of clay 
lan sand. After being carried out, the heaps 
jpear, to a superficial observer, to be a coarse 
ose sand. Below six feet, the marl became so 
}or as not to be worth carrying out, and was not 
5ed except when the distance was very short. Its 
rengtli was less than -f^\. The bed at first was 
cposed on the surface, near the bottom of a steep 
U-side — but as a large quantity had been taken 
i1, and sevei'al successive cuts made into the 
ce ol' the hill, some years before, the covering 
irth was increased, on the space now to be clear- 
1, so as to vary between eight and sixteen feet, 
id I think averaged between eleven and twelve, 
he sifliation of the marl and road required that a 
ear cartway should be made as low as the in- 
nded digging: and therefore nearly all of the 
irlh was to be moved by a scraper, and was 
trown into the narrow bottom at the foot of the 
ill. This earth served thus to form an excellent 
iuseway across the valley, which made part of 

road in the next undertaking. All this marl 
ms horizontally, and the layers of difterent qual- 
ies are very uniform in their thickness. The 
reater part of the covering earth is a hard clay, 
'mpure fuller's earth, which was difficult to dig, 
tid still more so for the scraper to take up and re- 
iove. Part was thrown off by shovels, and 
rved to increase a mound made by former ope- 
itions, within the circle around which the scraper 
»'as drawn. 



the men and the oxen are awkward, and the labor 
is very heavy, and even injurious lo the team. 

Labor of digging and carrying out the Marl. 

Three tumbril? Avere kept at work on this job 
and the next, a good mule being added to the reg- 
ular carting force — and no time was lost from 
April 20lh, to May 31sf, except when carts broke 
down, (which Avas very often, owing to careless 
driving, and Avorse carpentry.) or when badAA^eath- 
er compelled this labor to stop. One man dug the 
marl and assisted to load; another man loaded, 
and led the cart out of the pit, until he met another 
driver returning from the field, to VA'hom he deliver- 
ed the loaded cart and returned to the pit with the 
empty one. Of the two other drivers, one Avas a 
boy of sixteen, and the other tAvelve years old — 
the youngest only was permitted to ride back, 
Avhen returning empty. The distance to the near- 
est part of the Avork (measured by the chain,) 
Avas nine hundred and tAVO yards, and the llirthest 
one thousand and forty-five: adding tAvo-thirds of 
the ditlerence to the nearest for the average dis- 
tance, makes nine hundred and ninety-seven yards. 
The ascent from the pit, by a road formerly cut 
and Avell graduated, lor marling, Avas supposed to 
be tAventy-five teet in perpendicular height — and 
every trip of the carts, going and coming, crossed 
a valley, supposed to be fifteen ieet deep, and 
both sides forming a hill-side of that elevation. 

When only four and a half feel of the marl had 
been dug, a large mass of earth fell into the pit, 
covered entirely the remaining one and half teet 
of marl, and stopped all passage for carts. To 
clear aAvay this obstruction AA^ould have cost more 
labor than the remaining marl AvasAA'orth, and there- 
fore this pit Avas abandoned. This happened on 
May 10th, Avhen six hundred and ninety-nine 
loads had been carried out, and the Avork done 
Avas ecjual to thirty-six days' work of one cart (by 
adding together all the Avorking time of each) — 
which Avas nineteen and a half'ioads for the aver- 
age daily AA-ork of each cart, or fifty-eight for the 
three. The average size of the loads, by trial, 
Avas five and a half heaped bushels — and the 
Aveight, one hundred and one pounds the bushel. 
It Avas laid oil at one hundred and four loads or 
five hunflkred and seventy- tAvo bushels the acre. 

Labor employed, for 699 loads, or 3680 bushels. 
2 men at 31^ cents, - 



Labor used in digging and removing earth. 



days' labor of 9 men, at 31 J cents each, 

6 women, ) + ,-i +„ 

2 boys, 5 ^^ •^^ '=''"^'' 
1 young girl at 15, and 1 old 

man at 25, 

8 oxen, (the scraper being 

drawn by 4 half the day, which then 

rested and grazed while the others 

worked the other half of the day,) — at 

20 cents each, 

dd 80 cents for wear of scraper, hoes, and 
shovels, ------ 



$11 25 
5 58 



Total, 



$24 03 



62J 
38 
G6 
261 



The price allowed tor the oxen is much too high 

;3r the common Avork, and so much rest allowed: 

jjljiut they Avork so seldom at the scraper, that both 



2 boys at 19 cents, 

2 horses at 33 cents, - 
1 mule at 26^ cents, - 

3 carts at 5 cents — 
tools at 3 cents, 

Daily expense, or for 58 loads 



Digging and carting 699 loads at the 
same rate, . . - - 
Add the total expense of removing earth, 



Spreading at 31J cents the 100 loads, 

Total expense, 

Which makes the cost per bushel, 1 34-100 cents, 
per load, (5A) 7 36-100 
per acre, of 
572 bushels, $7 66. 



$25 
24 


25 

28 


$49 
2 


03 
19 


$51 


47 



96 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



This marl was laid on much too thick for com- 
mon poor land, and one-fourlh of the body un- 
covered was lost, by the tailing in of the earth. It 
one-fourth of the exjiense of uncovering? the marl, 
was deducted on account of this loss, it would re- 
duce the whob exjjense nearly one-eighth. 

As soon as the carts were stopped in the work 
just described, they Avere employed in moving 
earth fi-oni similar marl, across the ravine. The 
thickness, strength, and other qualities of the marl, 
on both sides, are not ))erceptibly different. A 
large quantity had also been formerly dug on this 
side, but the land being lower, the covering earth 
was not more than ten feet where thickest, and 
the average was eight and a half or nine feet. To 
make room for convenient working, and a large 
job, an unusual space was cleared, ten to fiaurteen 
feet wide, and perhaps fifty or more long. The 
shape of the adjoining old pits, compelled this to 
be irregular. The greater part of the earth was 
of the same hard fuller's earth mentioned as being 
on the other side — and the upper part of this was 
still worse, being in woods, and the digging ob- 
structed by the roots and trees. 



Labor used in digging and removing the earth, 
\ ^^y^' ^ at 31J cents, $S 4 



b men 
1 man 
5 women 

1 woman 

2 boys 

1 old man 

2 -iris 



at 17A cents, 





50 


1 


80 


8 


00 


1 


71 




80 



i 25 cents, 

I 15 cents, 

8 oxen, for the scraper, as before, each 
team at rest half the day, 5 days, at 

20 cents, 

3 horses and carts, IJ days, at 38 cents 
Add for damages to scraper and other utensils. 

Total cost of moving earth, $ 27 48| 

Enough of the earth was carried by the carts to 
the dam crossing the ravine, to raise the roads as 
high as the bottom of the intended pit. The balance 
was thrown into the valley wherever most conve- 
nient. Only a small proportion, perhaps one- 
third, could be thrown off, without being carried 
away by the carts, and scraper. 

The loads were carried to the same field, and 
by the same road as from the former digging. The 
first hundred and ninety-one loads served to finish 
the piece begun before, of which the average dis- 
tance was nine hundred and ninety-seven yards: 
all the balance was carried to land adjoining the 
former, eight hundred and forty-seven measured 
yards from the pit. 

The loads were ordered to be increased to six 
bushels, whifdi was as much as the carts (with- 
out tail-boards) could hold, without waste, in as- 
cending the hills: but as the loaders often fell be- 
low that quantity, I suppose the average to have 
been five and three-fourths heaped bushels, or five 
hundred and eighty-one pounds. 

The tumbrils were kept constantly at this work, 
except when some of the land was too wet, or for 
some other unavoidable cause of delay. All the 
space which the old pits occupied, and over which 
the road passed, being composed of tough clay 
thrown from later openings, and which had never 
become solid, was made miry by every heavy 
rain, and caused more loss of time than would usu- 
ally occur at that season. The same four laborers, 



and two horses, and one mule, employed as bej 
fore— and their daily work was as tbllows : — | 
May 1.3th, Bsgan the new pit 

2 carts all the day, and 1 for 2 hours 
only, (afterwards otherwise 
ployed,) - . - 47 loads, 

hall (he day, then employ- 
ed otherwise~(l horse idle) 21 



13th, 



14th, 2 



15th, 3 

16th, Sunday. 



17th, 3 



finislied most distant work 
lith .... 



61 



62 



h; 



and began nearest with 4 

18th, 3 " for 4 hours (stopped by hea- 
vy rain,) - - - 22 
19th and 20, 3 carts at work elsewhere, on 

drier land, 
21st, 3 " again marling, - - - 75 
22d, rain — no work done by horses. 
23d, Sunday. 

24th, 1 " at other work. 
25th, 3 " again marling, . - 74 

26th, 3 " 75 

27th, 3 " 72 

28th, 3 " 72 

29th, 3 " (shafts of one broken and 

repaired,) - - - 64 

30th, Sunday. 
31st, 3 " until rain at 4 P. M. . 53 



702 
After this stoppage, the horses were put 
ploughmg the corn, that the cultiMition might 
sufficiently advanced to use all the laborers in hai 
vest, which began on the 11th of June. As n« 
as I could deternune by inspection, and a roU_ 
cubic measurement, about one-half of the uncov 
ered marl was then dug and carried out. As tf 
remainder was not dug until August, when I wr 
absent from home, I have no more correct mean 
of ascertaining these proportions; and shall a^ 
cording to this supposition charge half the actu 
cost of the whole uncovering of eartli, to this suji 
posed half of the marl which formed this last o| 
eration. 

The list of days' work shows that the averaf 
number of loads per day, at eight hundred ar 
forty-seven yards, was twenty-four and a half f 
each cart, which made twenty-tliree and a he 
miles for the day's journey of each horse. Tl 
first four days' work finished the liirthsst piece 
which the average distance was nine hundred ar 
ninety-seven yards — but this part of the work wi 
on the nearest side of that piece, and at less the 
that average distance. I shall not make any sej 
arate calculation for these hundred and nincty-or 
loads, but consider all as if carried only eight hui 
dred and forty-seven yards. 

The daily cost of the laboring force, 2 men, 2 
boys, 2 horses, and 1 mule, was before esti- 
mated at $2 11 — which served to carry out 
73i loads, or 422 bushels. At that rate, (to 
May 31st,) 702 loads, or 4036 bushels, 
cost, .... $20 

Add half the expense of uncovering, (half 
the marl still remaining not dug,) . 13 

For spreading, at 31+' cents per hundred 
loads, - - - - 2 



Total cost of 4036 bushels laid on, $36 07; 



Which makes the cost per bushel, 9 mills near! 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



97 



per acre, at 104 loads, or 538 bushels, $5 34J 
al 400 bushels, which would have been a 
^unicient, and much safer dressing - $3 57.J 

In 1S2S, at Shellbanks, a very poor, worn, and 
ly farm, I commenced marling, and in about 
ir months, finished one hundred and twenty and 
half acres at rates between two hundred and 
rty and two hundred and eighty bushels j)er 
re. The titne taken up in this work, was five 
ys in January, and all February and March, 
th two carls at work — and from the 5th of Au- 
st to the 27th of September, with a much strong- 
force. I kept a very minute journal of all these 
erations, siiovving the amount of labor employ- 
and of loads carried out during the whole time, 
would be entirely unnecessary to state here any 
ng more than the general amounts of labor and 
ex|)cnse, after the two particular statements just 
bmitted. At ShelibardiS, the ditlicukies of open- 
pits were generally less— the average distance 
orter, and the reduced state of the soil, and the 
•engtii of the marl, made heavy dressings dan- 
rous. These circumstances all served to dimin- 
1 the expense to the acre. The difficulties, how- 
ler, at some of the pits, were very great, owing 
the quantity of water continually running in, 
rough the loose fragments of the shells — and al- 
ost every load was carried up some high hill, 
aking every thing into consideration, I should 
ppose that the labor and cost of this large job of 
larling will be equal to, if not greater, than the 
erage of all that may be undertaken, and 'judi- 
ausly executed, on farms having plenty of this 
cans for improvement, at convenient distances. 

Cost of marling 120^ acres at Shellbanks. 

■eparatory work, including uncovering marl, 
cutting and repairing the necessary roads, 
and bringing corn for the team— Digging, 
carrying out, and spreading 6S92 loads (4 J 
heaped bushels) of marl, - - $250 38 
it the average rate of 57 J loads, or 259 bush- 
els per acre, the average expense was, to 

the acre, 2 03 

To the load, - - 3 cents and 63-lOOths, 
And to the bushel, - 83-lOOths. 



[NOTE M. Page 62.] 

STIM ATE OF THE EXPENSE OF WATER-BORNE 
MARL AND LIME, FOR MANURE. 

t The following extracts from different communi- 
litions to the Farmers' Register present interest- 
'ig and valuable facts, which show the actual 
bst incurred in procuring and applying water- 
ornemarl, and comparisons of the cost, and of re- 
irns, of the use of^ marl and lime. To those 
rho know the two gentlemen whose letters are here 
jpublished, it is surperfluous to say that on none 
ught more reliance to be placed as farmers of 
cod judgement. Both have had much expe- 
ience of the use of oyster-shell lime as manure, 
nd none value it more highly. 

To the Editor of the Fanners' Register. 

Charles City, December 2d, 1833. 

"I am sorry to have delayed sending you the es- 
imate promised of the cost of applying oyster 



shell lime as a manure: it was however unavoid- 
able. I might have given it before this, on my 
own responsibility; butprefi;rred to have others of 
as much experience to assist me in making it. 

In the first place then, the cost of shells brought 
to our landing places, is per hogshead of eighteen 
bushels, 62| cts. 

T'o cost of getting them from the craft, 

if very convenient for landing, 2| 

To cutting wood, allowing 12 cords for 

one hundred hogsheads, 3 

To hauling shells to the Avood, or wood 
to the shells, as may be most conve- 
nient, hauling out the shells after 
burning, slaking, scattering, &c. 32 

100 

Thus making the sum of one dollar the hogshead. 
To afford then five hogsheads to the acre after 
burning, (which has been the quantity a])plied by 
myself and my brother, on very stiff land,) one 
third more must be added, as the loss by that pro- 
cess; and I am inclined to the opinion that a frac- 
tion more may be adtled, which will make seven 
hogsheads, the cosi of which I have shown above 
to be seven dollars. On a lighter soil, i'our hogs- 
heads are deemed sufficient, which will diminish 
the expense one dollar. If there is any error in 
this estimate, I am satisfied that it is in" the low 
rate of charges: and I am confirmed in this opinion 
by one of my tenants, who is a man of considera- 
ble experience, having refused to accept the oflisr 
of thirty-five cents per hogshead, as full compen- 
sation for all the trouble and expense of liming, 
save tlie purchase and delivery of the shells. 

Charles City Jan. 1, 1834. 

"I am now enabled to complete the comparative 
estimate of the expense of lime and water-borne 
marl, for manure, which you requested me to fiar- 
nish. If the statements submitted are not full in 
every respect, they may at least be relied on so far 
as they go. 

"I commenced regularly to work about the 15th 
May to transport marl from Coggin's Point to my 
farm, a distance of fifteen miles by water, and 
ended on the 25th of December, a period of seven 
months. I had engaged in the business three hands, 
two of them at eiglit dollars per month, and the 
other a boy worth about two dollars and fifty 
cents. I purchased a craft, and when provided 
with all the necessary fixtures for commencing 
work, the cost was three hundred dollars. On the 
supposition, that this craft will at the end of ten 
years be entirely worthless, I will estimate the 
"wear and tear" or loss of" capital therein, at 
thirty dollars per annum, the average annual re- 
pairs at thirty dollars more, and the expense of 
provisions for the hands at ninety dollars for the 
year. With these preliminaries, I think I may 
now fairly make out my account for the transpor- 
tation of the marl, as follows: 

To cost of vessel, in "wear and tear" 

for seven months, ^17 50 

To average expense of repairs, 17 50 

To average interest on 8300, for 

seven months, 10 50 

45 oO 



98 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



Amount brought forward 
Hire of three hands for seven 

months, 
Provisions for seven months, 
Paid tor uncovering marl, and for 

putting on board a part of the 

whole quantity, 



45 50 



122 50 
52 50 



70 00 
290 50 



By 15,000 bushels of n)arl, at If j cents the 

bushel (very nearly,) 290 50 

"This makes the whole cost of the marl, put out 
at my landing, less than two cents the heaped 
bushel. The estimate lor hauling, scattering, &c. 
I will leave for you to add; that depends however 
on the distance; and I can only say, that a single 
horse cart was fully sufficient to keep way with 
the craft, a distance of one thousand yards. I 
think I can sately say, that no one can meet with 
more difficulties than I have myself encountered 
in this undertaking; my landing place being so 
bad, that I have known the hands frequently en- 
gaged for a whole week in unloading the craft, 
because of very low tides; when if the water had 
been sufficient to admit them to the wharf, they ; 
might easily have accomplished the work in half j 
thiTtime. I feel also perlijctly justified in saying, 
that had I been so situated as to have the advan- 
tages of a landing place which no tide could inter- 
fere with, that five thousand bushels more of marl 
could have been brought during the seven 
months. 

C. H. MINGE." 

"The foregoing estimate may be implicitly relied 
on, so far as it rests on actual expenditures and 
operations — and in the items which are necessarily 
conjectural, we have every assurance of correct- 
ness, that can be furnished by the practical and 
business-like habits which characterize the writer. 
But as the estimate is not completely carried out, 
we will attempt to supply the deficiency, and will 
add some observations on the comparative ex- 
pense of water-borne marl and lime. 

According to the estimates of the cost of labor 
used for mariing given in the Bssay on Calcareous 
Manures, 

A horse for a year's work, and in- 
cluding every expense, costs ^88 44 
Boy to drive, 44 67 

Cart and tools, 14 00 

$147 11 



"At which rate, the carting of 15,000 bushels of 
niari 1,000 yards, from the landing to the field, in 
seven months, cost $85 81 

Spreading the loads, in the field, at ten 

cents the 100 bushels. 11 50 



$97 31 
Cost of transportation, &c. before stated, 290 50 



Whole expense of applying 15,000 bu- 
shels, $387 81 



Or rather more than 2^ cents the bushel. 

"This estimate includes no charge tor the mad, 
as none had been made. If half a cent was added 



for this, it would increase the cost to about thrtP 
cents the busiiel. On the other hand, the pri j 
paid for hire vv.as unusually high, as free nan 
only were employed, and only such as could 
relied on. The difficulty of obtaining this mtf 
was very considerable, on account of the gre* 
thickness of superincumbent earth to be remove' ''( 
Many other causes of difficulty and loss were e:l' 
countered by Mr. Minge (all serving to increa'* 
his estimate to what it exhibits,) on ticcount of 1^"^ 
having commenced a perfectly new business,'! 
every part of which, he and his laborers we' "' 
alike strangers. ButAvithout making any dedu'" 
tion for any of the peculiar difficulties which i[ ''' 
fended the operations, and supposing halfacet' 
a bushel, a fiiir price to pay the owner of the maJ ' 
the entire cost will be counted at three cents tl I' 
bushel. By the preceding estimate the entire c(i» 
of lime, at $1 the hogshead of shells was 5}-^, s: ' 
5| cents the bushel. Now we will compaf' 
values. I 

"Oyster shells are not pure carbonate of lirr 
They contain a portion (how much we know no' 
of animal matter, destructible by fire, and whiil 
is entirely lost in burning the shells. VVhatever' 
this proportion of animal matter, it ought to 
deducted from the weight and value of the shel' 
but not knowing this proportion, the shells will 
here estimated as if they consisted of pure carbl 
nate of lime. The mari, carefully averaged, an 
analyzed, wasfiiund to contain 61 per cent, of ct 
bonate of lime. 

"A peck measure of oyster shells, which bi 
been well washed and dried, heaped about ' 
inches, (supposed to be fully equal to selling me( 
sure,) weighed 16^ pounds. The mari (an a\ 
rage of the whole thickness of the bed,) dried p( 
fcctly over the fire, and pounded, and pressed 
the hands only in the same peck measure, weighs 
20.^- pounds, even, and 24 pounds heaped. Ti 
measure and weight were supposed to be fixed 
correct instruments — but the same were used, a 
at one time, so that the relative weights, at lea; 
are correct. 

One hundred bushels of oyster shells, weighing!) 
lbs. =6, 700 lbs. making of carbonate j 

of lime the same, lbs. 6,71 

One hundred bushels of dried marl, 

weighing 96 lbs. z= 9,600 lbs. and con- j 

tain of carbonate of lime, lbs. 5,8ft 

Thus the marl which costs only a small fracti 
over one-half as much as the total expense of t 
shells, contains about 6 sevenths as much of pi 
calcareous matter. 

"But one of these manures is applied mild, or 
the form of carbonate of lime, and the other 
caustic, or quicklime: and some may doubt whet 
eran additional value is not gained by the burnii 
of the latter. This, we leave to others to decio 
In most cases, in this climate, we should consio 
the causticity of lime as more likely to be injurioj 
than beneficial. The minutely divided state | 
quicklime, however, certainly enables every pan 
cle to come into immediate operation; whereas 
might require tw^o or three years before the f 
benefit of marl could be obtained. This sono 
what slower action at first, is the only reason w) 
marl should not be rated, according to its prop* 
tion of calcareous matter, full as high as lime. 

"These results, which we have arrived at i 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



99 



( ill' a different route, do not differ materially from 
iHs.' obtained by Wm. B. Harrison, Esq. (No 7, 
) :>;'(!, Farm. Reg.) from his practice and expe- 
) iH r. He applied burnt but unslaked shells, at the 
)i(' nfseventy bushels, and marl at 140 bushels the 
; on adjoining and equal land, and found the 
ops of the first and second years equally increased 
r both manures, but that of the third year much 

Iter on the marled part. To make seventy 
ishels of burnt and unslaked shells, 108 would be 
quired, (according to Mr. F. Lewis' estimate, 
j1- I. p. 19, Farm. Reg.) so that according to the 
regoing mode of calculation, Mr. Harrison's ap- 
ications were at the rate of 108 bushels of oys- 
■ shells to the acre, and 140 of marl. His marl 
^s from a bed of quality similar to that used by 
If. Minge, but was mixed with much worthless 
irth, and was tran.sported at heavier expense. 

•This comparative estimate of values, has been 
ade to apply to a particular body of marl, be- 
luse the actual labor was there employed, and it 
as desirable to estimate as much as possible by 
ct.«, rather than on conjecture. But there are 
i)ubtless many bodies of marl on tide-water, 
ther richer, or more accessible, or perhaps pos- 
ssing bnih those advantages in a higher de- 
ree." — Ed. Farm. Reg. 

Charles Cily County, Feb. 4th, 1835. 

"I have delayed much longer than I intended, 

giving you an estimate of my last year's work 

the transportation of marl. The pressuf"* of 

usiness which is usual with me at the commence- 

lent of every year, must be my apology. 

Our work began on, or "about, the 25th of 
larch, and ended on the 24th December, a period 
f eight months. The labor employed Avas the 
\nie as the jireceding year two men and a boy, 
ith the exception of the first two months, when 
le assistance of the boy was unavoidably with- 
rawn. The wages of the men were eiffht dol- 
ire per month, and the boy's three dollars and 
iiy cents. The quantity of marl transported was 
eventeen thousand bushels. Our business was 
ecessarily suspended for twenty days in repair- 
g our frail bark, in the month of October, 'i'he 
istance is fifteen miles. I shall not attempt to 
ive any estimate of the expense of hauling from 
y landing, and scattering the marl, as you have 
already at hand, and can easily add it if you 
hink it necesi?ary. 
To hire of laborers, - - $152 50 

Food for laborers, - . _ 60 

Repairs of vessel, - - 40 

Interest on first cost and fixtures, 18 



By 17000 bushels of marl > ^.^-o 
at 1 J'j cents per bushel, 3 ''*'''"' 



"Thus showing that the expenseof transportation 
ilone falls under one cent and six-tenths per 
jushel. It seems to me wonderful, that so much 
preference should be given to ojster shells, by 
fhose convenient to water. I have used both, and 
j^reatly prefer the marl; first as being the cheapest 
—and secondly, as yielding a more immediate 
return for the labor, which is one of the most 
desirable objects to be attained in all improvement 




I am still laboring under great disadvantage in 
regard to the landing of the marl on my shore. 
Nearly one-third of each load requires to be shift- 
ed to a smaller vessel, to enable the larger one to 
reach the wharf with the remainder, which still 
convmces nie that the digging and water carriage 
could be reduced, under more fiivorable circum- 
stances, to one cent per bushel. 

C. II. MINGE." 

"According to the previous estimate of the cost 
of the preceding year's labor, the carting of these 
17,000 bushels of marl from the landing to the 
field, (1000 yards) and spreading, would amount 
to,TjllO 28 — to which add the cost above stated 
for digging and water carriage #270 50, and it 
appears that the total cost was §380 78, or not 
quite 2;^ cents the bushel. These facts well de- 
serve the attention of all land-holders on naviga- 
ble water, who have not marl on their own farms. 
The marl this year was brought from a difiierent 
bed (in Surry) recently bought by JNlr, Minge and 
others, to obtain marl for transportation, but at as 
great a distance as that which he worked in 1833." 
— FJ. Fann. Reg. 

Upper Brandon, Prince George > 
Co. Fa., Nov. 1, 1833. 5 

"The two following experiments to test the 
comparative value of lime and marl, were made 
on adjoining pieces of land of the same original 
quality, and previously manured from the same 
heap. The soil on which the first experiment was 
made, was a fine loam, ratlier stitf. I appUed 
seventy bushels of unslacked lime per acre, and 
one hundred and forty of the marl, or two mea- 
sures for one. The land was put in corn, succeed- 
ed by wheat, and is now in clover. The two 
former crops were equally and manilestly benefit- 
ed by the calcareous matter, but the clover exhi- 
b'ils a much more flourishing appearance on the 
marled part, although it is very fine where the lijjie 
was ap.plied. 

"Tiie liuid on which I tried the second experi- 
ment is now in corn. The soil is light. The 
quantities of lime and marl, and the previous im- 
provement the same as before. The corn on the 
marled part is equally as good as where the lime 
was used, and strikingly better than on the ad- 
joining land which had received the same dressing 
of putrescent manure. 

"The mail used was brought by water 12 miles;^ 
and I applied only 140 bushels per acre, because 
the cost of this quantity, and of 70 bushels of un- 
slacked lime, was found to be nearly the same, 
and from the tried efficacy of the lime, I well know, 
that, if tlie effect proved to be equally great, I 
could extend the use of it to great advantage. 
Contrary to my expectation, the results of the ex- 
periments stated, fully establish the fact that the 
140 bushels of marl are at least as elricacious as 
half the quantity of lime. You ask how nuich 
the crop was increased by " the marl I I regret 
that I did not ascertain by measurement, and can- 
not therefore say precisely — but it may be confi- 
dently affirmed, that the increase of the first crop 
of corn and wheat will repay the whole cost ol 
the marling, and the land will be left permanently 
improved. 

■WM. B. IIARRTSON." 



100 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



[NOTE N. Page 65.] 

PROOFS OF THE EFFECT OF CAI.CAREOUS 
EARTH IK PREVENTIJXG DISEASE. 

"The perusal of the "Supplementary Chapter" to 
the Essay on Calcareous Manures, (in No. 2 of the 
Farmers' Register,) and the inquiry with which it 
clos?s, as to the ehects of marl in purifying the air and 
contributing to healthfulness, induces me to mention a 
case somewhat in point. If I can give you no very 
satisfactory information, I may be the cause of elicit- 
ing it from others. 

"The streets of Mobile are generally unpaved, and as 
a substitute for stone or gravel, which are not to be ob- 
tained, shells, (which have long been untenanted,) are 
strown over the carriage ways and side walks to the 
depth of several inches. These soon become a firm 
mass, and form a smooth surface, so as to resemble a 
Macadamized road. The streets have a remarkably 
neat and clean appearance, and are much more plea- 
sant than the paved ones. 

"The shells, which are of various kinds, generally 
small, are raked up in great quantities in me shal- 
low lakes, and brought to the city in large light- 
ers 

"Mobile is much more healthy now than it was be- 
fore this plan of improving its streets was adopted. It 
was proposed to "shell" some of the streets of New 
Orleans, but whether it was carried into elfect, I am 
unable to inform you. The suggestion you have 
made may call the attention of its citizens to the 
subject. M," Farmers' Register, T'ol. p. 152. 

"In the 3d No. of the Register, a writer, under the 
signature of "M," has told us, that since the town of 
Mobile was paved with shells, it has become much 
more healthy. This is strong probable testimony in 
favor of the principles advanced. A few days ago, 
and before I saw the third No. of the Register, I saw 
a near connexion, who has just returned from a settle- 
ment which he has made on the JBlackWarrior, about .50 
miles below Tuscaloosa. lie spoke of the lact that 
Mobile had become much more healthy within a few- 
years, without, however, assigning any cause. He 
also represented a very large portion of that countiy, 
between Tuscaloosa and Mobile, as calcareous, and 
abounding in shell marl, [or soft limestone.] He says, 
the countr}^ if not more healthy, is certainly not more 
sickly than this part of Virginia,* and that it appears 
to be generally understood there, that the marl pre- 
serves it from disease. As one evidence of the fact, 
that the country owed its healthiness to the marl, he 
stated that the more northern parts of the state, where 
that deposite was not found, the countr}' was more 
sickly "^^^Farmers' Register, Vol. I. p. 21-!. 

"The fine rich prairie soil is calcareous manure it- 
self, tempered by nature with the most happy combi- 
nations of silicious earth and vegetable mould: and the 
quality of the soil rises just in proportion to the just- 
ness of these combinations. In some places the calca- 
reous formation approaches quite to the suriace, and 
makes whatare called "bald prairirs." These sometimes 
cover as much as an acre, jirrliai's more, perfectly white 
and thick; butthey are reiuliMvd' pitxhictive by the addi- 
tion of sand, and hj ploughing — (being generally solt 
enough to yield to the plough — ) and as soon as grass and 
weeds, or a crop of corn "or cotton- can take root, and 
leave a vegetable deposite, these bald plains grow 
black, or at least of a much darker shade. It is as- 
tonishing with what facility vegetable substances are 
decomposed in the prairies, and rendered subservient 
to the improvement of the soil. There is another fact 
connected with this part of the subject, that strongly 



i.if 



corroborates your views regarding the healthy actio) 
of calcareous earths on putrescent matter, containe 
in a "Supplementary Chapter," on that subject, in tt 
second No. of the Farmers' Register, Tliis fact i 
that the prairies have jiroven to be the healthiest par 
of the state — notwithstanding the water is to all aj 
pearancc bad, and is unquestionably very unpleasai 
to the taste of those most used to it. The calcareoiifi' 
formation i'orms a substratum for the whole extent i 
the prairie country, and is accessible at the banks < 
every creek and gulley, and I have discovered it i 
various places at considerable distances from the pra^e 
ries. In most instances it is white as chalk — somdk' 
times it is blue — and in all cases it abounds with smali 
sea shells almost decomposed. By cutting it with fi 
saw and planing it, (as is often done lor building pu: 
poses,) you see the lines, or sections, of the shells: h 
breaking it, you often see the impression of the suji 
faces of the shells. It grows harder by dry exposun* 
but it is not very good for building. It absorbs muc 
water and scales by freezing. With sufficient heat, | 
turns to lime, whicli is good for building, but is tc 
coarse and dark for plastering. The best lime is mad 
from that which has been exposed perhaps for ages t 
the action of the sun and air; and that kind presen 
itself in various places, and in large tracts, exhibitiri 
a very singular, craggy appearance, resembling largt 
bones of animals, ancl 'other grotesque shapes." — Fa\\ 
mers' Register, Vol. I. p. 276. 



* Nottowaj- 
Virginia. 



-part of the 



iiile and liilly rrjjion of 



Extract from the Southern Agriculturist of Aug. 1833. '.. 

"I have only seen the prairies of Alabama, in tt' 
counties of Montgomery and Lowndes, and have trie, 
to ascertain the composition of the soil, and the efiec 
produced on it by heat, drought, and moisture, so fii 
as connected with their productions. The prairie 
mean the lime lands, and cover a large portion of tl 
surface of the middle parts of that State, and are d' 
vided into the wooded and bald, (or unwooded prairiei 
which are so interspersed, that in one thousand acre; 
together of the most ^^■ooded, there will be from onu 
tlnrd to one-fifth of bald prairie, and in the most bald 
a similar proportion of wooded prairie. To speak gt;' 
nerally, the prairies are healthy, high, dry, and ver} 
undulating, presenting but few levels and no savaiil 
nahs; the hills bald or unwooded, and covered with 
dense growth of grass and weeds, furnishing coars-^ 
but excellent pasturage; the sides of the hills, begiiij 
ning at about one-half of their declivities, with the in 
tervening valleys (there called slues) wooded, will 
the soil of jet black color, which sometimes extenc 
over the whole hill, though very often the bald pan 
are the color of lime; the crown of many of the hili 
to the space of half an acre, covered with the puji 
lime rock in lumps, which, on calcination, makes e>i 
cellent lime, and in great abundance. The sides 
the hills and slues are very properly considered the be* 
lands as to fertility, durableness and exemption froi 
rust. The black soil, and that ^owth which showi 
rich land here, is considered the best, and the close c 
stiif soils, if such a term can properly be applied 
lands so very loose, are to be preferred as being moi( 
certainly free from the rust, a disease to which cottc 
is very "liable in the bald, and in some kinds of tt 
Vv'ooded prairie, afterlong use. 

"There are also some prairie swamps, or levels 
considerable width, very rich indeed, and very close! 
covered with a dense growth of canes, (mucli of thej' 
more than thirty feet high) and a heavy growth 
large timber. These lands, as well as some other 
often present uniform inequalities over their gener: 
levels, resembling the lairs of large animals. The Ii 
dians say llioy are buffalo beds; they are called 11 
ho2:-bed "lands," and are consid'^rcd the evidence of j^' 
perior quality. But small portions of tlicse lands ha^ 
fallen under the stroke of the axe, from their difficult 
of clearing, and being liable to be overflowed by tl 



I'ART III— APPENDIX. 



TTTT 



i.uifity of water which is precipitated on them from 

ir xcry broken country about them, 

•■ fins embraces the general character of the surface 

f the country. The soil presents on and below its 

a lace, oyster and other SL-a-shells, and the petrifieu 

■iiiiiiiis of fish, and shows evidently that it was once 

o\ ered by the ocean. It is for many feet in depth a 

lass of rotten limestone, in all the various situations 

1 which it has been placed by the chemical action oi 

eat and moisture, and by the decomposed vegetable 

latter. Those soils are best where tliere is the most 

legetable matter: hence the woodlands that pay lor 

iieir tenancy in the soil the annual contribution ol 

leir leaves, are better than the bald prairies which re- 

eive only a scanty contribution from their decayed 

rasses. The soil is a powder which dries quickly on 

;s surface for an inch or two, and in dry weather is all 

ver in small cracks, and looks very dry and husky and 

nfit for vegetation; but below its surlace two inches, 

r below where the plough has reached, there is a per- 

etual moisture. Tlie soil works up under the lingers 

/itliout grit, and very much like putty. From a 

lasual observation of the black light inland swamps of 

18 lower country of this state, I would say, there was 

luch resemblance between them as to appearance, 

ut to appearance only. This quality in the soil 

I! auses the prairie to bear drought surprisingly, and 

ii 'ood crops of cotton and corn are made on them, in 

easonsthat cut short the product of other lands. 

This fineness of soil prevents the percolation of 
(luch water through it: hence, in the rains of winter, 
vhen but very little evaporation is going on, it makes 
he worst roads imaginable; so mucii so, tliat it is a 
aaterial deduction from the value of any plantation, 
hat should be more than ten miles from navigation. 

'This fineness of soil, which prevents its absorp- 
ion of water to any depth, I think the cause of ano- 
her mischief. It prevents the gradual feeding of the | 
veils and springs, and in dry summers they go dry to 
n extent on some few plantations, to require water to 
e hauled to the people in the fields, and in extraordi- 
lary years to be hauled to their settlements. It is 
'ery common for stock to suifer much lor the want of 
vater. So soon as the warmth of spring is felt, and 
vaporation begins, the roads improve surprisingly and 
>ecome good, and the lands become dry; and when 
)nce well ploughed up in the spring, become as light 
IS an ash-heap, or as lime itself, which it is, and no 
ubsequent weather ever puts them out of order, ex- 
ept for a day or two, from some great rain. You can 
generally plough the day altera hard rain. 

"The soil being so loose and light, makes it very lia- 
jjle to run its surface off with every rain, and I do not 
jihink that horizontal ploughing would save it, nor the 
means usually considered ettectual here. I have tried 
lotton stalks, and bushes, up a slope without efiect, that 
would have been suflicient here.* You cannot ditch 
with the spade in the prairie: you would make as 
much and very similar progress in a barrel of pitch. 
With all this liability of your lands to wash, it will be 
i. long time before you will lose its soil, for it is very 
ieep. I find the opinion entertained by intelligent 
gentlemen, that the fertility may be restored by the 
chemical action of the sun and air without putting ve- 
getable matter there. This looseness of soil and want 
)f retention of moisture at the surface, during the crop 
season, makes the prairies the kindest and the easiest 
and to work. I would prefer to make a crop on them 
n an ordinarily good year, to preparing for one here.* 
STou can very well cultivate one-fifth more land to the 
.abor.;r, and gather two-thirds more of cotton. The 
reason why you can gather more, is, because the cotton 
pod in that soil and climate matures perfectly, and 
Jpens so wide, that the whole contents of the boll 
:omes out at a touch of t!ie fingers; when here, it is 
Irawn out at two pulls, and sometimes a third; another 



reason is, that you commence picking about a fortnight 
earlier than here, and this time in the long days of Au- 
gust, is equal to one bale, of our weights, to each la- 
borer: aiKl yet another reason is, tliat knowing thai the 
amount ol the crop depends on the gathering, all other 
works are so arranged as not to interlere with it. 

"1 think the country more healthy than this, owing 
in part to its being more high, dry, and broken, and 
more under the strong influence of the trade winds; 
but there must be a farther reason, because I have 
seen local causes enough to produce sickness here, in 
spite of the general causes of salubrity, that did not 
produce it there. Families reside with security on 
their prairie plantations ail summer, in the midst ot ex- 
tensive clearings of rich land. I think it must come 
from some purification of atmosphere arising Irom the 
immense quantity of lime on and near the surlace of 
the soil. The other lands in that country undersjmilar 
circumstances, are not more healthy than here.* The 
waters on the prairie do not corrupt; it is disagreeable 
to the taste, and both cathartic and diurectic in its ef- 
fects on a new settler, but after a lew weeks he be- 
comes reconciled to its taste, and many prefer it to 
other good water." 



In Sotitli Carolina. 



Mobile, Avg. 28, 1833. 

"Agreeably to mj^ promise, I proceed to detail to 
you some particulars about the former situation and 
present condition of this place, in regard to its health, 
as connected with the system of shelling the streets, 
and in support of the position assumed in cL'Siippk- 
nienlarij Chapter to the Kssay on Calcareous Manures,^ 
recommending calcaieous earths as promotive of health 
aYid cleanliness in cities and towns — (p. 7G, Farmers' 
Register, No. 2.) 

"1 settled in Mobile in 1819, and have resided here 
ever since. Mobile is situated at the head of Mobile 
bay, just where the river of the same name enters it. 
The plain on which the city stands extends back five 
miles, and covered by a pine forest. Tlie region of 
hilly pine woods then sets in, and ahbrds fine healthy 
summer retreats. Summer retreats have been formed 
over the plain, quite from the city to the hill land; and 
they prove to be healthy. In 1819, Mobile was a small 
wooden built town — the streets narrow and deep with 
light sand, except under the bluti, (which was eight to 
twelve feet above the level of the river,) where the 
streets were muddy — the tide ebbing and flowing over 
a margin of marsh from 4 to 600 feet wide, the edge 
of the marsh next the blutf at all times wet springy 
land. The rapidly increasing trade of the place, ear- 
ly drew those engaged in it towards the river, and soon 
covered the flat with store-houses, built on lots so badly 
filled up, that water stood under all of them, without 
exception — under some 6 inches, some 1 to 2 feet: and 
encroachments were made quite into the water, by 
la}'ing timbers horizontally, to give sufficient elevation. 
High tides brought in floating i()gs— marsh grass — and 
all small substances that were borne on the waves, 
depositing them in tlie streets and over the flat. There 
were only one or two streets at all filled in this flat, and 
tliey were very partially done. My first visit was in 
July, 1819, about the middle of the month: then it was 
healthy. About the last of tliat month, a violent S. E. 
storm cast an immense quantity of trash and filth over 
the flat, and a long drought followed, with prevailing 
north winds, which kept the water of the bay unusual- 
ly low. The place that summer was visited with the 
yellow fever, to the extent of a pestilence. In 1820, there 
was no prevailing epidemic, though the place could 
not be said to be healthy; perhaps there were some 
cases of yellow fever. I was absent three or four 
months this year on business. In 1821, there was less 
sickness than the previous year. That year, the gov- 
ernment sold the site of Fort Charlotte, (now near 



' In f!onth Carolina. 



TW 



ON (3\.L(3areous manures. 



the centre of the city,) and the citizens thus came in 
possession of an immense quantity of material for fill- 
ing up. The fort was a very strong Spanish built one, 
with walls 20 to 25 feet liigFi, and 15 to 18 feet thick, 
madi of brick and stone, strongly cemented with mortar 
of shell lime. It had an outer wall, and a glacis sur- 
rounding the whole, of pure earth. All this, during 
the latterpartof 1821, and in 1322 and 1823, was carted 
and spread over the Hat, together with an immense 
quantity of earth taken from the back parts of the 
town, which went very far towards filling up the flats 
above high water. But this filling was put in the streets 
and lots, and the foundations of houses already built, 
were thus made lower tlian the surrounding land. In 
1824, similar improvements were carried on, and up 
to (and including) that year, there was no epidemic 
diseases: but bilious fevers were common, and the place 
was counted unhealthy. 

"In 1825, similar improvements went on, and the 
place was healthy up to the 25th of June, when a wet 
spell occured tliat lasted through the most of July — 
showery, with intervening hot suns. That year, the 
old burying ground, which is now in the heart of the 
city, and interments in which had been discontinued the 
previous year, being the property of the Catholic 
Church, was laid oil in building lots, and let out on 
long leases; and many who had friends and relatives 
buried there, were permitted to disinter them, and re- j 
move them to the new grave yard. This operation [ 
was carried on during the months of June and July, \ 
aid thj old graves were left open to the influence of the j 
rain and hot sun, to evolve the noxious effluvia that had 
bjen engendered by the decomposition of the bodies 
they had contained. Most of the subjects that were re- 
moved were of those who had died in 1819 and sub- 
sequently; and I doubt not the miasmata that were ex- 
haled partook of the nature of that which produced the 
disease of which the subject died — it may be it was 
identical. Tiiis year the yellow fever raged aoain like 
a pestilence, and, unless I have already assigned the real 
cause of the fatal sickness of this year, I am at a loss 
how to account for it from any local cause that 
would not have operated as powerfully any previous 
or subsequent year, anterior to the shehing system. It 
is to be admitted, that the deep loose sandy streets, and 
back yards, would serve as recepticles for an immense 
amount of animal and vegetable matter, thrown out 
from kitchens and shops, which, in a dry time, was 
trodden in and hid, and yet tlie substance remain to be 
operated on by heat and moisture: and that the efiluvia 
thus created would co-operate with the cause befoie as 
signed. There is another collateral cause worthy of 
notice, that exposed many a poor creature to the influ- 
ences of the general causes of sickness, and no doubt 
accelerated its progress. That year is remembered as 
the "gambling year." The legislature, by careless 
legislation, in a very laudable zeal to suppress that per- 
nicious vice, by a sweeping clause so framed a law, as 
that it admitted a construction to license gambling, in- 
stead of suppressing it. Many gambling houses were 
opened under a $1000 license, as public as taverns; and 
such scenes of dissipation have rarely been witnessed 
in any country! Exposure to night air, loss of sleep, 
loss of fortune, loss of character, drunkenness and de- 
bauchery, (all fruitful exciting causes,) no doubt had 
their full eiibctin swelling the list of mortality. 

"In 182i) and 1327, many brick buildings were in 
progress, and the sit»s of them exposed by removal of 
the old wood buildings. This, with the general ab- 
sence ofcleanliness produced by the capacity of sandy 
streets to retain filth, as remarked above, caused sick- 
ness these two years. There were several cases of 
yellow fever in both years; but nothing to be com- 
pared with 1S25. In October, 1827, a fire occurred 
that swept the whole business part of the town, and 
hardly left a house standing, wood or brick, in all the 
flat below the biuif. The legislature, at the next ses- 
sion, which commenced soon afterwards, passed a law 



• 



prohibiting the building of any other than fire-prot 
Duildings within certain limits that included the busi 
ness part of the town; and here begins a new era i 
the history of Mobile. In 1S26, a brother of mint 
who is aphysician, then residing hero, urged the im 
portance of improving the health of the city, (whic 
he deemed perfectly practicable,) both through th 
medium of the press, and in conversations, upon a 
suitable occasions. Nothing was done wliile he reside 
here; but his opinions took root, and were finally acte 
on. The shelling the streets was the prominent mean: 
with various details regarding police and individual a1 
tention to cleanliness of yards, &.c. Since 1827, th 
improvements in filling up, building, graduating, an 
shelling the streets, and paving the side-walks, hav 
gone on so rapidly as to defy details; but the eliect O' 
the comfort and health of the place is abundantly ob 
vious. In 1822, the first brick tenement was erectec 
and most of those that were afterwards built prior t 
1827, were then burnt down. Now there are betwee 
300 and 400. One entire new street in front has bee 
made, having encroached on the river to the depth ( 
six or eight feet of water: and from thence back to th 
blulf, the ground is well filled up — eveiy street shelle 
— all the alleys — many of the yards — all the publii 
warehouse yards, and the tavern yards, are shtUcd- 
several of the streets are shelled for half a mile bad 
and one that meets a leading road is shelled over 
mile — many of the cross streets are shelled, and en 
long, every street in the city will be shelled — it is, ir, 
deed, the settled policy, and without any constitiitiono 
bar to its exercise. Mobile has been uniformly healthl 
since 1827 — and I have been particular in my details 
that you might the better judge whether it resulte 
from the shehing system. You will, no doubt, giv 
due weight to the circumstances of all the flat bein 
well filled, and mostly covered with fine brick built 
ings. Last fall and this summer, while the choler 
rasced so fatally in New Orleans, Mobile was visite 
with very few cases, and they excited little or nr 
alarm. In the first instance, nine or ten cases were rf( 
poited: tlie deaths were four or five. In the last iti 
stance, no public reports were deemed necessary, anii 
I cannot say, with any precision, how many cases ool 
cunvd. I heard of some few deaths among the blac' ' 
— and the city continues perfectly healthy up to thi 
time. The shells that are used are cockle, or sea mus 
cle, as some call them. They are the size of a ha 
dollar, to that of a dollar, of the form of a clam shrl 
and they are pretty thick and solid. They aboun > 
about the shores of the bay, and are contained i !; 
large banks upon the marsh islands opposite and ahov I 
the city; perhaps having been the nuclei upon whic } 
tliose islands were formed. The shells are brought i ; 
large lighters, as your correspondent 'M.' informs yoi; j 
[Farmers' Register Vol. I. No. 3, p. 152.] Whenth 
street is graduated after the manner of turnpiking, th 
shells are carted and spread over the street to th 
depth of four or five inches. The spreading hardl 
forms a moment's obstruction to the passage along th 
street: as soon as they are spread, which is done b 
scattering them with a spade, cariia3;ps and horses pas 
over them, and they very soon form a crust, so w 
cemented as to be diflicult to dig up with a pickaxe 
They wear out, by very constant use on the most fr£i 
quented streets, but, by a little attention to breaks anij 
thin places, when a street is once shelled, it is ver* 
easily kept in repair. 

"I have been informed the shelling system has beei 
attempted in New Orleans; but it will not answer fc 
that place, owing to the ground b;?in^so much saturate'! 
with water as not to sustain the shells. I learn that :' 
is difficult to make the deepest paving stand well,fror> 
that cause. If it will answer. I doubt not that Nei 
Orleans would find its account in covering every inci 
of its whole area. H.'" — Farmeis Regider Vol. I. Ni 
5,p. 277. 



001 . 

ckt f 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



103 



NOTE O. Page 68. 

DISCOVERY or MAGNESIAIV BIAUL IN THE 
GRAKITE AND COAL REGION OP VIRGINIA 

The maa;nesian marl of Hanover was discover- 
d by John H. Steger, Esq. in 1833. Very mi- 
lute accounts of its appearance, and of its chem- 
ical composition, were given soon Jiltervvards in 
Ihe Farmer's Register, Vol. I. pages 424, 425, 
. It had the appearance of a hard chalk, ex- 
cept in color, which was ash color when wet, and 
a dark or dirty white when dry. No shells, nor 
any appearance of their havinglDcen present, could 
be seen, but a fossil tooth, of the kind called the 
shark's, was tbund, Avhich directed to the discove- 
ry, and sufficiently attests the marine formation of 
the bed. With muriatic acid its efl'ervescenco was 
'so uncommonly slow, as to induce, at first, the be- 
lief that its calcareous proportion was very small — 
and upon a more fliU trial, this circumstance caused 
me to suspect the presence of carbonate of mag- 
nesia, (which had not been met with in any other 
earth,) and which, in fact, was found, to the 
amount of thirty-one per cent., besides the very 
larofe proportion of fifty per cent, of carbonate of 
"me. ]Mr. Rogers afterwards analyzed part of 
the same specimen, by a different and more accu- 
rate process, as well as with far more knowledge 



Silica, 


7 


Alumina, . 


. 3 


Loss, 


. 1 



60 



of the subject, and obtained very nearly the same 
proportions of these carbonates. From sixty grains 
of earth he obtained of 

Carbonate of lime, 31 grains ■) = percent. ( 51| 
Carb. of majrnesia, 18 I .... | 30 

f . • • . 1 16f 

] • . . . \_n 

100 

The locality of this earth was as singular as its 
composition. According to the account fiirnished 
of its discovery, (by Dr. Meaux, in the Farmers' 
Register, Vol. I. p. 424,) Bear Island, where the 
bed was tbund, "lies between the first branches of 
Pamnnky River in Hanover county," and "is sit- 
uated on the first bed, and within a short distance 
of the first out cropping of granite, in ascending 
the Pamunky, and is pretty clearly in the same 
geological range that the Chesterfield and Henrico 
coal mines are, being in a northeastwardly course 
from them, and showing thin strata of coal in a 
bluff of free-stone which overlooks Little River, a 
tributary of the Pamunky, and is the northern 
boundary of the [Bear Island] tract." 

No late information has been received, showing 
whether any use has since been made of this earth 
as manure, or whether further discoveries of the 
extent of the bed have been made. 



A TABLE 

SHOWING THE NU3IBER OF SPACES CONTAINED IN AN ACRE OF LAND, AT VARIOUS GIVEN 

DISTANCES. 

The following table will be found useful for fixing the proper distances to place marl, lime, or other ma- 
nures, so as to give any desired quantities to the acre. The last table though not relating strictly to the sub- 
ject of manures, is convenient for fixing proper distances for planting, and other operations. 

Abridged from the American Farmer of 1820. 



iFeet. 


Feet. 


Ft. 


i-'t. 1 




Ft. 


Ft. I 


h't. 


Ft. 1 




40 by 40 


27 


20 by 16 


136 


18 by 13 1 


186 


15 by 13 i 


223 


39 


39 


28 


do 


15 


145 


do ' 


12 


201 


do 


12 


242 


38 


38 


30 


do 


14 


155 


do ' 


11 


220 


do 


11 


264 


37 


37 


31 


do " 13 


167 


do 


10 


242 


do 


' 10 


290 


36 


36 


33 


do 


12 


181 














35 


' 35 


35 


do ' 


' 11 


198 


17 by 17 1 


150 


14 ' 


14 


222 


34 " 34 


37 


do 


10 


217 


do 


16 


160 


do 


' 13 


239 


33 " 33 


40 








do 


' 15 


170 


do 


' 12 


259 


82 


' 32 


42 


19 ' 


' 19 


120 


do 


' 14 


180 


do 


11 


282 


31 


31 


45 


do 


' 10 


127 


do 


13 


197 


do 


10 


311 


30 


30 


48 


do 


17 


134 


do ' 


' 12 


213 








29 " 29 


51 


do « 16 


143 


do 


11 


232 


13 


13 


257 


28 


28 


55 


do 


15 


152 


do " 10 


256 


do 


' 12 


279 


27 " 27 


59 


do 


14 


163 








do 


11 


304 


26 


26 


64 


do 


13 


176 


16 


' 16 


170 


do 


10 


335 


25 ' 


' 25 


69 


do 


12 


191 


do 


15 


181 








24 


' 24 


75 


do 


' 11 


208 


do 


' 14 


194 


12 


' 12 


302 


23 


23 


82 


do 


10 


229 


do 


' 13 


209 


do 


11 


330 


22 < 


' 22 


90 








do 


12 


226 


do 


10 


363 


21 


' 21 


98 


18 


' 18 


134 


do 


' 11 


247 








20 


20 


108 


do 


< 17 


142 


do 


10 


272 


11 


" 11 


360 


do " 19 


114 


do 


16 


151 








do 


10 


396 


do " 18 


121 


do 


' 15 


161 


15 


15 


193 








do " 17 


128 • do 


14 


172 


do 


14 


207 


10 


" 10 


435 



104 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 







Table of planting distances. 




Ft. 


Ft. In. Ft. In. 


Ft. In. Ft. In. 


Ft. In. Ft. In. 


Ft. In . 


9 by 9 


537 


5 6 


by 3 9 


2112 


4 6 by 2 


1 4840 


3 3 by 3 3 


4124 


do 


" 8 


605 


do 


" 3 6 


2262 


do 


1 9 


5531 


do 


3 


4818 


do 


u 7 


691 


do 


3 3 


2436 


do 


1 6 


6453 


do ' 


2 9 


4873 


do 


" 6 


806 


do 


3 


2640 


do 


1 3 


7744 


do 


' 2 6 


5361 


do 


" 5 


9G8 


do 


" 2 9 


2880 


do 


" 1 


9680 


do 


' 2 3 


5956 


8 


' 8 


680 


do 


" 2 6 


3168 


4 3 


" 4 3 


2411 


do 


2 


6701 


do 


" 7 


777 


do 


« 2 3 


3520 


do 


" 4 ( 


2562 


do ' 


1 9 


7658 


do 


' 6 


905 


do 


" 2 


3960 


do 


" 3 9 


2733 


do ' 


' 1 6 


8935 


do 


, 5 


1089 


do 


1 9 


4525 


do 


" 3 6 


2914 


do 


' 1 3 


10722 


do 


4 


1361 


do 


" 1 6 


5280 


do 


" 3 3 


3153 


do 


' 1 


13403 


do 


3 


1815 


do 


1 3 


6336 


do 


" 3 


3416 


3 


3 


4S4C 


7 


7 


888 


do 


" 1 


7920 


do 


2 9 


3727 


do ' 


' 2 9 


5289 


do 


6 6 


957 


5 


5 


1742 


do 


' 2 6 


4099 


do 


' 2 6 


5808 


do 


6 


1037 


do 


" 4 9 


1834 


do 


' 2 3 


4555 


do ' 


2 3 


6453 


do 


5 6 


1131 


do 


" 4 6 


1936 


do 


' 2 


5124 


do 


2 


7260 


do 


5 


1244 


do 


4 3 


2049 


do 


1 9 


5856 


do 


1 9 


8297 


do 


4 6 


1382 


do 


4 


2178 


do 


1 6 


6832 


do 


1 6 


9680 


do 


' 4 


15.55 


do 


" 3 9 


2323 


do 


1 3 


8199 


do ' 


1 3 


11616 


do 


3 6 


1777 


do 


3 6 


2489 


do 


1 


10249 


do ' 


1 


14520 


do 


3 


2074 


do 


3 3 


2680 


4 


' 4 


2722 


2 9 ' 


2 9 


576G 


do 


' 26 


2489 


do 


" 3 


2904 


do 


3 9 


2904 


do ' 


2 6 


6336 


do 


2 


3111 


do 


" 2 9 


3168 


do 


3 6 


3111 


do ' 


2 3 


704C( 


do 


1 6 


4148 


do 


2 6 


3484 


do 


3 3 


3350 


do 


2 


792Ci 


do ' 


' 1 


6222 


do 


2 3 


3872 


<lo 


3 


3630 


do ' 


1 9 


9051 


6 6 ' 


6 6 


1031 


do 


" 2 


4356 


do 


2 9 


3960 


do ' 


1 6 


1056CI 


do ' 


6 


1116 


do 


1 9 


4978 


do 


2 6 


4356 


do 


1 3 


1267CI 


do ' 


5 6 


1218 


do 


<' 1 6 


5808 


do 


' 2 3 


4840 


do 


1 


15S4C: 


do 


' 5 


1340 


do 


<' 1 3 


6969 


do ' 


' 2 


5445 


2 6 ' 


2 6 


696ci 


do 


4 6 


1489 


do 


1 


8712 


do ' 


' 1 9 


6222 


do ' 


2 3 


774Ct 


do ' 


' 4 


1675 


4 9 


4 9 


1930 


do 


' 1 6 


7260 


do 


2 


871v 


do 


3 6 


1914 


do 


" 4 6 


2037 


do 


' 1 3 


8712 


do 


1 9 


9956' 


do 


3 


2233 


do 


" 4 3 


2157 


do 


' 1 


10890 


do 


1 6 


116101 


do ' 


2 6 


2680 


do 


4 


2292 


3 9 ' 


' 3 9 


3097 


do 


1 3 


1393& 


do ' 


' 2 


3350 


do 


3 9 


2445 


do ' 


' 3 6 


3318 


do ' 


1 


1742^: 


do 


1 6 


4467 


do 


'• 3 6 


2620 


do ' 


' 3 3 


3574 


2 3 ' 


2 3 


8604 


do 


1 


6701 


do 


3 3 


2821 


do 


' 3 


3872 


do 


2 


968(1 


6 ' 


6 


1210 


do 


3 


3056 


do 


' 2 9 


4224 


do 


1 9 


11065, 


do 


' 5 9 


1262 


do 


" 2 9 


3334 


do ' 


' 2 6 


4646 


do " 


1 6 


1290ej 


do 


5 6 


1320 


do 


" 2 6 


3668 


do 


' 2 3 


5162 


do 


1 3 


15488i 


do ' 


5 


1452 


do 


2 3 


4075 


do 


' 2 


5808 


do 


1 


1936C| 


do 


4 6 


1613 


do 


2 


4585 


do 


' 1 9 


6637 


2 " 


2 


1089(1) 


do 


4 


1815 


do 


" 1 9 


5248 


do 


1 6 


7744 


do 


1 9 


1244f 


do ' 


3 6 


2074 


do 


1 6 


6113 


do 


1 3 


9272 


do 


1 6 


14520 


do 


' 3 


2420 


do 


1 3 


7336 


do 


' 1 


11616 


do 


1 3 


17424', 


do 


2 6 


2904 


do 


•■' 1 


9170 


3 6 ' 


3 6 


3555 


do " 


1 


2178C 


do 


2 


3630 


4 6 


" 4 6 


i^l51 


do 


3 3 


3829 


1 9 " 


1 9 


1422£| 


do < 


1 6 


4840 


do 


4 3 


2277 


do 


3 


4148 


do 


1 6 


1659^|| 


do 


1 


7260 


do 


" 4 


2420 


do 


' 2 9 


4525 


do 


1 3 


1991^1 


5 6 ' 


5 6 


1417 


do 


3 9 


2581 


do ' 


2 6 


4978 


do " 


1 


24454 


do 


5 3 


1508 


do 


3 6 


2765 


do 


2 3 


5531 


1 6 " 


1 6 


1936Ci 


do 


5 


1584 


do 


3 3 


2978 


do 


2 


6222 


lo 


1 3 


23233 


do 


4 9 


16G7 


do 


3 


3226 


lo ' 


1 9 


7111 


do " 


I 


2904(1| 


do 


4 6 


1760 


do 


2 9 


3520 


do 


1 6 


8297 


1 3 " 


1 3 


2787? 


do 


4 3 


1863 


do 


2 6 


3872 


do 


1 3 


9956 


do 


1 


34848 


do 


4 


1980 


do 


2 3 


4302 do ' 


1 


12445 1 " 


1 


4356C 



Errata.— The reader is requested to correct the following errata: Page 19, col. J , Uth Hnc— for '-/orty-sevcn" teid "fifty-te 
m." Page 81, col. -2. 1st line of the rwte — for "translation,^'' road "transition.'" I' 



PART III-APPENDIX. 



105 



[NOTE S. Page 68.] 

rscovkrles of, and obskrvations on the 
"gypseous earth," or green sand for- 
mation, OF VIRGINIA, 

After fhe preceding sheet, which was intended 
close this work, was in the press, and part of 
e impression finished, the continuation of Mr. 
ogcrs' observations on the green sand of Virgi- 
a, was received for the Farmens' Register. It 
ould be improper to omit this piece; and' yet to 
sert it atone would not do justice to the views of 
1 author, nor to the statements presented in the 
tide on gypseous earth, to both of which the 
st communication niaices fi-equent refijrence. 
n this account (though contrary to the previous 
tentions expressed in note H.) the first two 
eces will be here republished, in the order they 
jpeared, as a necessary introduction to the piece 
st received, and which will appear in the Farm- 
's' Register, as well as here, to preserve the pro- 
;r order and connexion of the subject entire in 
jth publications. 

From the Farmers' Register of Sept. 1833. 
TVic gypseous earth of James River. 
As far back as I can remember, crystals were 
Smetimes found on the river shore at Evergreen, 
two miles below City Point,) which attracted no 
.rther notice than being admired tor their perfect 
ansparency- At that time it is probable that no 
he u\ the county had ever noticed crystalized 
ypsum, or even the lump gypsum of commerce, 
nd no one had given the slightest attention to mi- 
eralogy. It is "therefore nol strange that the na- 
ire of these crystals was not suspected before 
317, when some person better acquainted with 
le subject, sujiposed them to be pure gypsum, 
^he expression of 1 his opinion attracted some no- 
at that time, but was received with general 
icredulity, fcmnded upon the supposed imj)ossibil- 
y of gypsum existing in this region, where it had 
ever been heard of before. A lump was sub- 
mitted to the inspection of a French apothecary in 
'etersburg, who had "chemist" painted on his 
ign: he at once pronounced that the substance 
vas not gypsum, but isinglass. 

The interest which I had felt with regard to 
tiis substance was soon after much increased by 
inding some small specimens on my own land, 
Coggin's Point.) Having no prospect of having 
he question decided by any person possessing a 
cientific acquaintance with the subject, I consulted 
•ooks, and fijund such instruction as enabled me to 
inalyze the substance, and ascertain that it was 
mre sulphate of lime, or gypsum. But however 
satisfactory to myself, it must be confessed that my 
ihemical proof was not much valued by others; 
)ecause it was thought impossible that a process 
lelieved to be so mysterious, could be accurately 
)erformed by one who confessedly was ignorant of 
ihemistry, and who had only resorted to its aid for 
his particular object. To settle all these doubts, 
[ sent collections of choice specimens to two of 
he most distinguished chemists in the United 
States, with the request that they would give their 
testimony as to the nature of the substance. To 
hiave complied fully with my wish would not have 



slightest attention to the subject nor even returned 
my specimens. These were certainly the strong- 
est among the very many proofs I have known of 
how little aid chemists are disposed to ofl'er to ag- 
riculture. As these applications had been made 
to remove the doubts of others, and not mine, and 
to attract the public attention to what I considered 
an interesting and perhaps im))ortant subject, the 
results did not discourage the progress of my own 
investigations. 

1 had previously ascertained that the gypseous 
formation was of much greater extent and impor- 
tance, than the crystals alone would indicate. Iq 
all the dificrent places where the crystals had been 
found, they were imbedded in the same kind of 
earth, having a very peculiar appearance, and 
which extended along the south river bank, with 
but few interruption.'?, from Bayley's creek to Cog- 
gin's Point, a distance of eight or ten miles, — 
Having so marked a guide for examination as this 
earth |)resented, I found gypsum in it in varioua 
places, but in such small quantities, that alone it 
would never have attracted observation. It waa 
evident that gypsum either was, or had been at 
some former time diffused through the whole body 
of this earth, and therefore I distinguish it by the 
general name of gypseous earth, although in most 
cases there may be no gypsum now remaining. 
This term of course is not always indicative of the 
present construction of the mass. The gypseous 
earth is of a dull greenish color, mottled with streaks 
of bright yellow clay. Where gypsum is visible, it 
is genendly in numerous small crystals; sometimes 
in coarse white powder. At one spot only (where 
first discovered) are the crystals large. Here they 
are sometimes eevcral pounds in weight, and of va- 
rious and beautiful forms. Some are as transpa- 
rent as glass' but generally, they are of a dark 
gray color, owinjT to a small quantity of dark 
earthy particles being enclosed between the lamincB, 
of the crystals. Except at this place, the solid 
crystals seldom exceed ten or twelve grains in 
weight, and generally are less than one grain. 
The most usual appearance in which they are pre- 
sented in the bank, is that of a star, formed by nu- 
merous rays (each a solid crystal) shooting out 
from a common centre. As these rays are very 
slisrhlly attached to each other, they generally fiill 
asunder when removed. 

In much the greater part of the gypseons earth 
which has been yet examined, no gypsum is visi- 
ble; nor is it believed that even the smallest parti- 
cle remains. But whether gypsum is present or 
not, the earth is filled with numerous hollow forms 
or impressions of shells, so as to prove that this 
was once part of a bank of fossil shells, (or marl 
as it is here called) of which the upper part, un- 
changed, still forms the cover of the gypseous 
earth, through its whole extent. The yellow clay, 
before spoken of, is very often presented in the 
form of shells, as if, when fluid, it had filled their 
vacant places. Masses of hard marl, coated over 
with crystalized gypsum, are also found here and 
there in gypseous earth. A close examination 
of the bed, and comparing the impressions of shells 
with the appearance of those still existing in the 
upper stratum, or in the neighborhood, will leave 
no doubt on the mind of the observer, of the change 
having taken place from a bed of fossil shells to 



required fifteen minutes of the valuable time of | gypseous earth. 

either of those gentlemen: yet neither paid the I " This conclusion is attended with two dilficul 



14 



106 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



lies: In the first jilacc, wc are at a loss to know by 
what agency or means could so extensive, regular, 
and complete a chemical change have been made, 
as converting all the shelly matter (carbonate of 
hnie) to gypsum, (sulphate of lime.) Secondl}', 
admitting the means to exist, and the cha.nge to 
have taken place, it is istiil more diliicult to guct^s 
what has become of the g\psum so lormed — as 
not one-tenth of its proper quantity remains. When 
sul])huric acid takes the place of carbonic acid in 
combination with lime, the greater weight of the 
former, (together with the water chemically com- 
bined,) serves to increase the weight of the new 
compound about fifty per C(Mit: or, in otlier words, 
one hundred grains of sliells, or pure calcareous 
.earth, if allowed to condjine with sulphuric acid, 
will fbnn at least one hundred and filly grains of 
gypsum. So the mere change of acids being made, 
ought to gire us an earth much richer in gypsum 
than it before was in calcareous matter. Instead 
of tliis, the gypsum is no where so j)lenty as we 
may suppose the shells formerly were; and by 
far the greater ptul of this bed now is entirely 
destitute of both gypsum and calcareous eartJi. 
What has become of it is beyond my power to 
explain. 

The access of waters containing sulphuric acid, 
or sulphate of iron, would suffice to produce tlie 
change of carbonate to sulphate of lime — and the 
exposure to sufficient water, and for sufficient 
time, might dissolve and carry off the greater part 
of the gypsum. Sulphate of iron is perceplilde 
on the surface of some of this earth near the head 
of ticje water on Powell's creek, and was abundant 
enough to greatly injure the land on which some of 
that earth was applied thickly, for nianure. Sal- 
phuret ofironhas also been found intermixed with 
the gypseous earth: and this mineral in contact 
with carbonate of lime, would also by chemical 
decomposition and new combination, form gyjj- 
Rum, It was at Berkley, in Charles City, that 
sulphpret of iron Avas found by Mr, Benjamin 
Harrison, near the bottom of a pit of thirty six 
feet depth, which he caused to be sunk in the 
beach and through gypseous earth. Many isola- 
ted rxiasses of marl were reached, (such as I descri- 
bed above,) and Mr, H. thinks that the gypseous 
earth also was still calcareous. In either case, 
the chemical change from the carbonate to the 
sulphate of lime must be still going on, as the agent, 
sulphuret of iron, still reniained in considerable 
quantity. 

The discovery of the existence of gypsum caus- 
ed the hope to be entertained at first that it would 
be found in large bodies, and pure enough to fijrm 
a valuble commodity for sale, and distant trans- 
portation. But the examination which led to the 
foregoing conclusions, also served to dissipate 
these expectations. As the shelly bed which was 
the origin of the gypseous eartli, was composed 
principally of worthless sand and clay, the new 
gypseous formation must have the same degree of 
adulteration, which would forbid its sale fbftrans- 
portation. 

The only remaining use for the application of 
the new discovery, was as manure in the ncigh- 
Taorhood where it was found: and circumstaiices 
then existing, and opinions almost universally en- 
tertained, i)re vented much profit being expected 
from this source, and discouraged even the expe- 
riments necessary to test fully the value of the 



earth as manure. These circumstances and opi 
nions will be stated. 

When the wonderful effects of gypsum as raa 
nure in Pennsylvania, and in parts of the moun 
lainous region of Virginia, were first made known 
the reports excited as much of incredulity as aSl 
tonisliment, or of hope to reap the same rewards: 
But as a few pounds of pulverized gypsum wer 
sulKeieut lor the purpose, almost every farmer ii 
lower Virginia, who was either enterprising or in 
quisitive, made some small applications for experi 
ment. This was thirty five or forty years age 
and perhaps there was not one of theseexperiment 
recorded, or the precise result kept in reniem 
brance. But as to the general result, there coul.| 
be no mistake. The failure was so general, the 
ever)' one of the experimenters agreed that gypsur 
was worthless in lower Virginia; and in that opin 
ion all others concurred. Some marked instance 
of success presented on Berkley in Charles Citj 
Curie's, Brandon, and some other fine soils o 
James River, when the use of gypsum was resunn 
ed fifteen or tvyenty years afler, did not shake tht 
opinion of the general unfitness of our land for the 
manure. In this opinion I fully concurred — and ( 
course could not expect to find our own impur 
gypseous earth more efficacious, than the pure 
substance from France or Nova Scotia, 

But without expecting profit from the manurt 
the desire to prove its identity with gypsum cans 
ed me to make many small experiments with thl 
pounded crystals, and with the earth in which thei 
were found, in 1817, and afterwards. The resuli! 
v/ere not such as to promise jirofit from the ej 
tended use, but served to remove all remainini 
doubt as to the nature of the substance. On th! 
several kinds of clover it sometimes produced n 
markable benefit — but more generally, very littlil 
On corn, it was totally inert, except in a very fe" 
cases, and in one of these exceptions, the bene! 
was remarkable. On other grain crops, no efiei' 
was ever found. These very different efiiects, ir 
stead of being imputed to the nature of the soil 
and the crop, (as I have since ascertained to be tH 
true causes,) were supposed to be evidences of tH 
capricious manner in which this manure actei 
and of its general worthlessness for this region, 
saw indeed that its best effect was on calcareoi 
soil — and even then began to entertain the opinic 
which since has been established by facts, that tf 
want of calcareous ingredients in our soils, causf 
their vmfitness to be improved by gypsup. J ft 
the less inducement however to continue my aji 
plications, because my own gypseous earth wi 
poor, and limited in quantity: and 1 wished to n 
serve what there was of it for future use, when rr 
land should be made calcareous, and more fit fl 
clover. For these reasons, my use of the gypseov 
earth was almost abandoned for six or seven year; 
and no other person had tlien made any expei 
ments to test its value as manure. 

In the winter of 1825-6, 1 found on my land, 
small body of gypseous earth containing at least on 
tenth of pure gypsum on the average — and po 
tions of it had as much asone-fliurtli. This caul 
ed me to resume its use. In 1826, 5G5 heapcf 
bushels were a])plicd, about 20 to the acre, (su ;i 
posed to give from 2 to 3 of pure gypsum,) to vjjji 
rious soils, and to difi'erent crops. In 1827, bl 
tvv'een 7 and 800 bushels were applied. The efVel 
on clover, on land calcareous by nature, or mail 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



107 



?o by art, was as great generally, as gypsum has 
ever produced elsewhere^ On cotton, and on corn, 
Ihe efiects were irregular, and taken altogether, 
were not equal to the cost ol' the application. But 
though the use of this earth was now confirmed to 
land made calcareous, (as it was evidently worth- 
; elsewhere,) I again lost the greater jjart of" its 
value by another improper mode of application, 
which it may be useliil to others to state more 
fully. 

Judge Peters, to whom Ave are indebted for 
making known and establishing the value of gyp- 
Bum, was of opinion that one of its operations is 
to hasten the rottinc of vegetable matter Avhcn 
both are in contact: and thence he deduced the 
opinion of the propriety of mixing gypsum in heaps 
of compost, or of other coarse j)utrescent manure. 
Besides gainmg this particular benefit from mix- 
ing the gypseous earth with my stable and larm 
yard manures, (which I was ready to believe on 
Uie high authority of Judge Peters,) I expected to 
derive from the practice a still greater benefit, in 
distributing easily and equally the earth over the 
land, which was very troublesome to spread alone. 
For these reasons, the greater part of my gyp- 
seous earth was spread over the litter in the larm 
yard and stable, in such quantities as was supposed 
would give about 20 bushels of the earth to every 
ncre covered by the manure. The heaping of the 
manure to ferment, then cutting it down to load, 
and .spreading it over the field, no doubt divided 
and distributed the gypseous earth very equally. 
It showed no eflect on the succeeding crop, corn, 
(at least none that could be distinguished from that 
of the putrescent manure,) and none on the wheat, 
[ which followed. I had not expected much better 
\ results on these crops, but relied confidently that my 
[ clover, sown on the wheat, \vould show the elFect 
[ of the gypseous earth equal to any on otlier land, 
j where it had been applied alone. In this I was to- 
, tally disappointed. Not the least efi'ect of gypsum 
could be discovered on the clover — and thus the 
whole of this application was thrown away, as 
, well as the greater part of the succeeding win- 
ter's application, which in like manner had been 
mixed with my other manure, and which had not 
then arrived at the time to prove its uselessness. 
The cause of this inefliciency is now plain enough. 
Fermenting manure, (and probably all ferment- 
ing vegetable matter,) forms oxalic acid, which 
attracts lime so powerfully as to take it from all 
other combinations in which it can be presented. 
Tliis acid thus meeting with the sulphate of lime 
in the gypseous earth, at once decomposed it, and 
destroyed the peculiar manure before existing. 
No particle of gypsum remained to be carried out, 
and act on theland. It is useless here to extend 
my remarks on the operation of oxalic acid, as it 
has been done at length elsewhere:* it is suffi- 
cient to show by this statement that my obstinate 
adherence to this mode of application, lijrtwo Avin- 
ters, caused the loss of the greater part of gyp- 
seous earth, as Avell as the labor of applying it. 
The rich seam Avas by that tune exhausted, and 
my later use has been Avith the poorer body, which, 
it is possible, may not be cheaper than to buy the im- 
ported gypsum. However, Avithin the last yeav, 
my friend and neighbor Thomas Cocke of Tar- 



* Essay on Cal. Man. pp. 143, 224. [2d Ed. p. 92.] 



bay, by applying earth apparently still poorer in 
gyiisum, has produced saich rt^markable benefit 
on ('loyer, that I am encouraged to return again to 
this kind of manure. The earth he uses is brown, 
and differs much from the general appearance asf 
described above. We are both satisfied that the 
gyiJseous_ earth possesses some poAver to aid the 
groAvth of clover, independent of the pure gypsum 
contained.^ Last year, (1832) to test this opinion, 
I soAved French gypsum on clover at the different 
rates of 1, 2, 3 and 4 bushels to the acre on marked 
spaces. The benefit of the smallest application 
doubled the crop of clover — and it was increased 
by the heavier dressings, though not at all propor- 
tioned to the quantities applied. But the clover on 
the heaviest application (of 4 bushels,) was not to 
compare to the efiect seen on neighboring and 
similar land, from 20 bushels of my best gypseous 
earth, and Avhich Avas not greater than had often 
been found elsewhere. J\fr. Cocke finds equal 
benefit, on clover made on poor light land, (that is, 
it is made as heavy as it can Aveil stand,) from 40 
busiielpi of his earth Avhich appears so poor. It is 
necessary to observe that all these instances of 
benefit are on land made calcareous by fossil shells: 
and on my own, last spoken of, before that opera- 
tion, the gypseous earth had been used, in heavy 
as well as light applications, and without the least 
efiect. The A'ery rich bed of gypseous earth at 
Evergreen has only just noAv been opened for 
use. 

The statements made of my oAvn practice s\ww 
that I cannot boast of having derived much (if 
any) profit from the use of gypseous earth. Ne- 
vertheless, my ex]ierience may be more useful to 
oihcrs than it*has been to my.selt; and the misap- 
(jlications caused bj' my inexperience and igno- 
rance may serve to shoAV others, Avho have access 
to such manure, how to make proper use of it. 
Within the last year, circumstances have attracted 
attention, and been made public, which induce the 
belief that this Ibrnuition of gypseous earth is much 
more extensive than Avas before su])])osed. The 
marl beds in Hanover and Henrico, not far below 
the granite ridge, are covered by an upper bed of 
clay, Avhich is very difierent in appearance from 
our gypseous earth, but agrees with it in being 
lull of impressions of shells, and being destitute of 
nny jjorlioii of the carixuiatc of lime, Avith Avhich 
it Avas evidently so well iiu'nished at .some former 
time. No iiyp.^um is visible. This earth also dif- 
fers floni that of Prince George in containing pure 
sulphur g(-ncral!y diffused throughout, as made 
evident Ity its strong suljdiurcous scent. I do not 
know tliiii this .-jiiigular and extensive formation is 
valuable as manure^)ut it isatleastAVorth exam- 

j ination and trial. The clay bank through which 
Governor's street in Richmond is cut, is fidl of 
such impressions of shells, though it does not con- 
tain, and is not known even to cover, any remain- 
ing calcareous matter. If shells are below, as is 
])robable, this is very near their termination in that 
direction. • 

In the bed of HoAA^ard's Creek, at the point 
Avhere it flows nearest to to the White Sulphur 
Spring, (within a few hundred yards distance,) 
there are many pebbles, varymg greatly in form, 
appearance, and chemical composition, but agree- 
ing in containing (like the earth before described) 
numerous hollow forms of small shells, of which 

1 nothing of the substance now remains, nor any 



108 



OJX CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



trace of carbonate of lime. These stones are as 
solid and hard as those of similar external appear- 
ance usually are. wliich makes still more strange 
and unaccountable the entire disappearance of the 
shells which have at a former time been enclosed. 
I have mentioned this fact because it may possibly 
attract the attention of some of the men of science 
who visit that place, and induce them to observ^e 
and explain these singular i'acts. The silicious 
fixed rocks lying close by the Sulphur Spring also 
have many star-like impressions on their surlaces, 
(but not within, as in the other cases,) Avhich 
Irom their similarity and regularity of form, must 
have been caused by small shells of one particular 
species. I found a similar impression on a pebble 
in the bed of the Calf Pasture River — and per- 
haps such facts may be numerous, and well 
known to others. In all these cases, there was not 
the least particle of carbonate of lime remaining in 
these stones, (as proved by chemical tests,) nor 
any appearance (to the eye) of any other salt of 
lime, to which the carbonate might have been 
changed. 

The highland which lies over the whole extent 
of the gypseous formation in Prince George pre- 
sents a surface and qualities of very peculiar ap- 
pearance, and which may possibly-Jmve some con- 
nection with the gypseous bed below. If so, my 
description may direct more successfully the search 
for gypseous earth elsewhere. The land from Bay- 
ley's Creek to Coggins' Point, except where in- 
terrupted by some low alluvial tracts, seems as if 
it had been originally a high and level bluff, or 
abrupt termination of tableland, which had sunk in 
successive slices, the lowest next the river, so as 
now to present somewhat the appearance of a hill 
side cut into terraces. Of course, this form is ex- 
tremely irregular. The broken strata cause the 
greatest variety of surface: fossil shells fit for use 
as manure, barren clay, barren calcareous sand, 
and rich black soil, were all to be found in almost 
every acre, and remained distinct, until mixed by 
the cultivation of the surface. It does not rest on 
mere conjecture that this land took its present 
fortn and depression by sinking or slippmg, as a 
similar natural operation to considerable extent, 
has taken place on the Tarbay farm within a few 
years, the progress and consequence of which are 
still visible. 

The rich gypseous bank, at Evergreen, is at a 
place where the river is encroaching on the land, 
and every storm, or very high tide, adds to the 
acres which have doubtless been already swept 
away. In this manner was formerly exposed the 
remains of the trunk of a tree, lying even with 
the beach, and which when wet, presented the 
same spongy and soft texture on the surface, 
smooth and even yielding to the touch, as is usu- 
ally seen in rotten and water-soaked logs. But 
except the surfiice, where water had probably dis- 
solved the substance, every pore and cell of the 
log was filled with gypsum, though the form and 
grain of wood remained distinct. This complete 
filling of the cells could only have taken place 
when the gypsum was in a fluid state. The cir- 
cumstance of a tree being found beneath a bank 
of shells, or what had been shells, might seem to 
be a proof that the shells were the later deposite 
of the two. But it is easier to believe that the 
whole body of earth, (though perhaps 50 feet 
high) was formerly thrown in'.o its present place, 



by one of those land-slips wliich have been al- 
ready spoken of 

There is a kind of earth in New Jersey which 
was called marl, (as almost every earthy manure 
has been) but which seemed to me, from the im- 
perfect descriptions given of it, to be the same 
kind of gypseous earth that I have described. Al- 
though this Jersey manure excited attention, and 
was bought, and tried, and reported on, by Judge^ 
Peters, there was no certain indication given to 
the public of the component parts of the earth, or 
what constituted its fertilizing power. Judge Pe-i 
ters speaks thus of it. "It is said by some thatl 
the Jersey pyritous earth, called marl, is of this de-! 
scription, [i. e. a mere stimulant;] and by otheraj 
that it is permanently fertilizing. Nothing deci-i 
sive can yet be pronounced, as its many varieties! 
differ in their respective effects. There are factsj 
both ways; so that this eartli when applied, and* 
the soil it is intended to assist, should be carefully 
scrutinized, and the qualities practically known.-i 
Some English chemists to whom it luxsbeen sent; 
style it an hydrat of iron; while others designate^ 
its composition, as a collection of decomposedi 
granite, schorl, silex, alumine, iron; in some spe-' 
cimens (no doubt those mixed with shells,) lime 
and magnesia, with sulphur. A more accuratei 
knowledge of its parts and properties, is still re- 
quired; and it is to be wished that our own chem-i 
ists will give us their assistance. Broom grass 
and other pests on worn lands, may be destroyedi 
by a top dressing of this earth and chloritic sandi^! 
of a similar, though not so potent a nature; whiclil 
substitute a natural growth of white clover."* Ini 
a communication of later date. Judge Peters madd 
the following incidental remarks. "Four year? 
ago, I procured 40 tons of Jersey manure, andi 
spread it as a top dressing on many parts of thcj 
Belmont farm, on sand, clay, loam, and in every' 
variety of exposure, as well as on moist and dry! 
grounds. But in no instance any profitable eflecil 
appeared. A broad strip of the lawn, light anc 
sandy, had been top dressed, and showed no signs 
of melioration heretofore. This strip is part o: 
my little oat field; and it has [this year] throwr 
up a most luxuriant growth, far exceeding anj 
other part, (though the whole was good, havin^j 
been well //rnetZ throughout,) and affords a proo' 
that this manure agrees with and co-operates wit! 
lime. I never saw, in the richest soil, strongeri 
better headed, or more promising plants. It would 
have been incompatible with my objects, or I 
should have suffered it to ripen, for experiment o^ 
its product. Mr. Mark Reeve, who is very Intel 
ligcnton this subject, (and to whom I sent a sam- 
ple of the manure,) informed me that I had beei 
imposed on by the person from whom I procured it 
the article used by me being only the cover of thti 
true kind. Its efiect, luxuriant as it is, must havt 
been more so, if the perfect manure had beer 
used."t i hfive seen it stated elsewhere, (thougl 
I am not able now to refer to the authority) tha 
the Jersey earth was particularly beneficial to clo 
ver, and that it was used in small quantities, com 
pared with other manures. 

This description of the Jersey earth, and tlu 



* Notices for a Young Farmer — by Judge Peters 
Phil. Memoirs, vol. 4. 
t Phil. Memoirs, vol. 4. 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



109 



effects imputed to its use, agree very closely with 1 
those of our gj'pseous earth. But it also seems, 
that no one entertained a suspicion that its value 
was owing to its containing, or Ibrming gypsum. 
I therefore infer that the earth there used was si- 
milar to the great body and poorest kind of ours, 
having not a particle of gj^psum remaining. If so, 
tile effects produced as manure, were probably 
owing to either sulphate of iron, or sulphuret of 
iron remaining in excess in the earth — which, 
when meeting with lime in the soil, formed gyp- 
euni— and if no lime was present, remained either 
(as the sulphuret,') an inert, or (as the sulphate of 
iron,) a poisonous ingredient of the soil. Iron 
pyrites (sulphuret of iron) have been used with 
mucli benefit as manure — 1 hough that effect would 
probably depend on whether the soil was calca- 
reous or otherwise. 

From the publication of the passages quoted 
above, and many others on the same manure th.at 
appeared about 1819, and soon after, it might be 
^Lijjposed that the attention and labors of chemists 
would have been drawn to this manure, and its 
composition and value clearly settled; and that 
■practical farmers would have fully profited by this 
instruction. On the contrary, all notice of the 
manure soon ceased, and no "information thereon 
has since been given to the public. It may there- 
fore be inferred that the manure was used so ig- 
norantly, as not to be found profitable in general, 
and that even the solicitations of Judge Peters, 
and the influence of his venerable name, could not 
obtain this small aid from men of science, which 
might have shown when and why the manure 
was useful, or otherwise. If my views of its con- 
stitution are not mistaken, it is certain that this 
manure will be found useless on most poor soils, 
unless calcareous earth is used previously, or in 
conjunction. 

EDMUND IIUFFIN. 

Shellbanks, Aug. 9, 1833. 

On the discovery of green sand in the calcareous 
deposite of Eastern Virginia, and on the proba- 
ble existence of this substance in extensive beds 
near the loestern limits of our ordinary marl. 

William and Mary College, June 26, 1834. 

To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. 

Since my attention was drawn to the nature and 
properties of the New Jersey green sand, by the 
specimens which you sent me for analysis, and by 
our more recent conversations on the subject, I 
have made a visit to the region in which it is 
found, and have witnessed the most striking evi- 
dences of its utility as a manure. During this 
excursion, I examined the marl in all its varieties, 
and learned many interesting particulars respect- 
ing its use, from intelligent farmers, long expe- 
rienced in applying it to the soil. I have moreo- 
ver analyzed several specimens collected on the 
spot with the view, if possible, of throwing some 
light upon its agency when applied to the soil. 

Since my return, I have made diligent search 
for this substance in our marl beds and the accom- 
panying strata, and am at present directing my in- 
quiries to that region of Lower Virginia in which, 
according to geological laws, as well as from some 
indications of which I have heard, this deposite 



may reasonably be expected to occur. As far as 
relates to the marl beds of this vicinhy, my search 
has been unexpectedly successful. With scarce 
a single exception, I liave discovered particles of 
the green sand, mingled with the ordinary sand, 
clay, and shells; and in some instances, in so large 
a proportion as no doubt greatly to enhance the 
useful agency of the calcareous matter. Indeed, 
I am inclined to believe, that in some cases, the 
agricultural efficacy of the marl is chiefly owing 
to the green sand which it contains. In this con- 
clusion I think I shall be sustained by facts hereafter 
to be noticed. 

The general occurrence of this substance in our 
marl beds, is certainly a discovery of some inter- 
est; and though I may perhaps exaggerate its im- 
portance in a practical point of view, [ cannot but 
think that it is worthy of the attention of our far- 
mers. I speak of its general occurrence, because, 
although I have examined but few specimens from 
a distance, the general resemblance of our marl 
deposite throughout, together with the almost in- 
variable presence of the green particles in such as 
I have inspected, wouldseem to justify the conclu- 
sion that it is a usual accompaniment of our marl 
formation, though by no means in equal propor- 
tions in all localities. Out of more than forty spe- 
cimens which I have examined, tlierc were only 
two in which the green particles could not be dis- 
covered; and as they frequently occur in patches, 
and not generally diffused throughout the bed, it 
is probable that even in the beds from which these 
two specimens were procured, the green sand 
might be elsewhere found. Some of the most ef- 
ficient marls in the neighborhood of Williams- 
burg, contain a marked proportion of this sub- 
stance. At Burwell's Mill, (three miles below 
the city towards Yorktown) the intermixture is so 
large, that the sand and detritus of shells washed 
down by the spring freshet display a very distinct 
greenish olive tinge, which even travellers observe 
as they pass through the valley in which the de- 
posite exists. At this place, the shells, as they 
are taken out of the extensive bank recently ex- 
posed by the torrent, are frequently filled with a 
dark mass containing as much as thirty per cent, 
of the green particles. In fact the whole bank is 
strongly tinged by them and the stratum which 
overlies the shells, in some places five feet in 
thickness, is precisely similar to some of the poor- 
er deposites in New Jersey, and contains upwards 
of thirty per cent, of this substance. In Judge 
Semple's marl beds, in the same vicinity, the green 
particles are equally abundant — and, as in the 
former case, extend into the incumbent stratum of 
non-calcareous matter. In many instances, this 
layer of overlying earth has been found even more 
efficacious on the soil than the subjacent marl — a 
fact which might naturally be inferred, when the 
green particlesabound chiefly in the upper stratum, 
from the extraordinary efficiency of the green sand 
as experienced in New Jersey. But by far the 
most interesting locality of this substance in point 
of extent, which I have examined, occurs on the 
shore of James River, adjacent to King's Mill 
and Littletown. Here the banks rise perpendicu- 
larly to the height of from forty to sixty feet, and 
for about three-fourths of this elevation are com- 
posed of shells and earth mingled with a large 
proportion of the green sand which in some placCF 
imparts a distinct color to the surface. The sraid 



110 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



of the beach is also filled with these particles 
which the rains have washed down, and which, 
at first view, present the appearance of the com- 
mon black sand of our river, though in much 
larger quantity. At Beliefield, and other places 
on the York river, the banks and beach are simi- 
larly impregnated. 

The gxecn particles may be readily recognised 
by their want of lustre, the ease with which they 
may be bruised with the point of a penknile, and 
the bright green stain which they then produce. 
In examining earth or marl in which they are 
very sparsely scattered, the particles are some- 
times difficult to separate liom the other matter. 
My method is to moisten the end of the knife 
blade by applying it to the tongue, and then to re- 
move several of the particles by adhesion. When 
{)laced upon a card and bruised, they leave a bril- 
iant stain. This test may be confidently relied 
on. 

The occurrence of the green sand so e:vtensive- 
ly through our marl region, aflbrds strong grounds 
lor hoping that valuable beds of this substance, 
like those of New Jersey, almost entirely unmin- 
gled with other matters, may be brought to light 
By a judicious and enterprising examination of the 
district on the we.stern limits of our marl. And 
should such a discovery be made, the agriculture 
of Lower Virginia would become possessed of a 
new and powerful auxiliary in furthering its al- 
ready rapid career of amelioration. Even the fact 
that "the green sand ollen exists in considerable 
quantities in and above our ordinary marl beds, 
which is I think now sufficiently established, may 
furnish no unim])ortant aid in the improvement of 
our lands, by leading to a more varied and judi- 
cious adaptation in the application of our ma- 
nures. 

Independently of the existence of the green 
«?and in a scattered state in our calcareous strata, 
there are other and stronger reasons lor believing 
that a deposite similar to that in New Jersey wifi 
be found in the appropriate region. In a geologi- 
cal arrangement of our various formations, the 
marl beds of Eastern Virginia and Carolina, as 
well as those of Maryland,' belong to a later pe- 
riod in the physical history of our country, than 
the green sand formation of New Jersey — the 
former being referred to the tertiary — and the 
latter to the secondary epoch of geologists. Now 
this tertiary deposite extends into New Jersey, 
and is found in many places in the latter state 
nearly contiguous to the green sand. Moreover, 
indications of the New Jersey formation have been 
found in Maryland— and such is the general regu- 
larity with which the different geological deposites 
are arranged, that we may fairly infer the exis- 
tence in Eastern Virginia of the green sand, or 
some deposite equivalent in a geological point of 
view — though at the same time it by no means 
follows thatr the green sand, if actually found, 
would be sufliciently near the surface to render it 
extensively available as a manure. The object 
however is of such magnitude, as to justify a very 
diligent examination, and I am therefore desirous 
of enlisting in this research all those readers of 
the Register who reside in the region which has 
been alluded to before. As however the success 
of this investigation will be greatly promoted by 
an acquaintance with the indications by which the 
green sand, or its geological equivalents are to be 



recognised, and some knowledge of the propertiei 
and constitution of the substance itsclt; I ehal- 
here give a brief account of the New Jersey for 
mation which I visited, together with the re^ 
suit of several chemical analyses of the sand care- 
fidly executed by myself and others: and lurthei 
to interest your readers in this important inquiry> 
I shall add a statement of such facts bearino- upori 
the application and agency of the marl, as 1 wasij 
enabled to collect during my visit to the beautifuJ 
region which it has so largely contributed to fer- 
tilize and adorn. 

The New Jersey green sand is apparently iden 
ticai with that series of deposites recognised iri 
Europe by the name of the green sand formation,! 
characterised by a predominance of minute greer 
particles in many of its fstrata. In Europe thesc^ 
strata arc generally found alternating with beds oj 
chalk; but in this country no chalk is found, unless 
in the region west of the Mississippi. The fos- 
sils embedded in the green sand on both sides oi 
the Atlantic, are however so strictly alike, that the 
geological equivalence of the American and Eu- 
ropean beds can scarcely admit of question, and 
is therefore generally conceded as an established 
point. It is relevant here to remark that in tracingi 
cotemporancous or equivalent geological format 
tions in diflerent regions, geologists are accustom 
ed to rely almost exclusively'^ upon the fossils,^ 
whethershells, bones, or vegetable remains, whichi 
the strata may contain — a procedure to which they 
have been led by the whole tenor of modern de- 
velopemcnts in geolog}^ Now with reference to 
the New Jersey formation, though k would boi 
impossible without num.erous drawings, and mucltl 
descriptive matter, uninteresting to general rea^ 
ders, to convey a knowledge of even the principal 
shells and other fossils existing in the green sand, 
some account of a few of these fossils may possi- 
bly be useful in the inquiries which I trust many^ 
of your readers will be prompted to undertake. 

1st. Lignite, or carbonized wood, often asso- 
ciated with iron pyrites of a bright yellow lustre,, 
frequently occurs in the beds overlying the green: 
sand formation, though it sometimes occurs iiii 
other situations. 

2nd. y/mberis oflen found in a similar position, 
as was the case at the Delaware and Chesapeake 
Canal. 

3rd. Belemnites — a fossil of a yellow or brow 
color, in shape somewhat like a cigar, but ratheij^ 
thicker — very brittle, and usually found brokeril 
transversely so as to exhibit its tubular characteljt 
within. 

4th. y/inmnnite? — a fossil presenting the appear- 
ance of a snake coiled up in a flat coil, ajid fre-^ 
quently large and ponderous. 

5th. The Echinns, or Sea Urchin — sometimes- 
globular, at other times much flattened, havingj 
numerous little warty prominences, and minute 
perforations symmetrically arranged on its surlace^ 
and when entire, occasionally furnished with 
spines or prickles, 

6th. Gryph(Ba — a shell having one valve very 
deep and convex, and the other flat. It somewhat 
resembles the small shell (chama) very abundant- 
ly found in our marl beds. This latter is smallen 
— has a rougher exterior, and has two muscular 
impressions in each valve — whereas the Gryphsea 
has but one. J 

7th. JS'xogj/ra— a shell like the former, with on* 



PAUT in— APPENDIX. 



Ill 



convex and one flat valve— but a great deal 
rougher and more irregular in aspect, and of large 
dimensions. 

8th. The Falcated Oyster — a beautiful ?hcll 
about one and a half or two inches in length, and 
iDcnt like a Turkish scimetar. 

These rude descriptions, which have no preten- 
sions to scientific accuracy, are designed to draw 
attention to such fossils as may be brought to light 
in the region in which the green sand may be ex- 
pected to occur — and in tliis point of view may 
prove of real value in examining for that deposite. 
Of course a scientific inspection of the fossils 
would be necessary to establisli their identity, but 
this can readily be procured by transmitting them 
to the Academy of Sciences in Philadelphia, or 
by sending them to William and Mary, where 
they would be carefully examined and compared 
with the New Jersey fossils as collected and de- 
pcribed. Indeed there is reason to believe that 
some of the characteristic fossils have already been 
(bund in Eastern Virginia. A bed of Lignite has 
been lately discovered on the Rappahannock, a 
few miles below Fredericksburg, the very point at 
which it might be expected to appear, and from 
information recently received, I am disposed to be- 
lieve that Belemnites may be found near the mouth 
of Potomac Creek. It has been said also that the 
Gryphfea has been fijund, but I have not heard in 
what vicinity. These facts.should furnish an ad- 
ditional stimulus to inquiry, and literally no stone 
should be lefl unturned in pursuit of so important 
a discovery. 

The New Jersey green sand is generally found 
in the valley and meadows, though occasionally 
it rises to some height in the surrounding hills. 
Its depth in man}^ places is very great, and several 
strata occur, separated by layers of shells, or blue 
clay, or Band colored by iron. The general aspect 
of the green sand is that of a bank of moist bluish 
clay — though in some places the green tint is very 
perceptible. This however only occurs where the 
earth is dry. When thrown into heaps by the 
side of the pit, the mass falls into a coarse pow- 
der, in texture and color very closely resembling 
tjunpowder, on which account it is very commonly 
known by the name of gunpoioder marl. This 
mass consists in very large proportion of the pure 
green sand, having a slight admixture of clay, and 
in many places of minute fragments of shells. 
Occasionally, the bank presents a mass of the pure 
green sand itself — and again, in some places the 
ghells predominate. In one of the beds in the vi- 
cinity of New Egypt, I discovered small spicula' 
of gypsum, or sulphate of lime: but this occurred 
at no other locality — and in this place the crystals 
were so minute and few in number as to require 
the use of a microscope to be seen distinctly. The 
jnoist marl when warmed in the hand exhales a 
strong phosphoric odor, a fact which I believe has 
not been hitherto remarked. 

As already observed, the marl frequently con- 
tains shells both in an entire and broken condition. 
This however is by no means universal. In fact, 
the great majority of those beds in actual use con- 
tain either no calcareous matter, or a very minute 
proportion of it. This I ascertained by chemical 
examination. In the vicinity of Arney's Town, 
Crosswick's Creek, and Shrewsbury, as well as 
other places, much of the marl which the farmers 
spfeai gver their land, . contains no carbonate of 



lime; while at New Egj'ptthe calcareous and non- 
calcareous marls are both extensively emplo3'ed. 
The same is true likewise, of the beds fiirther 
south at Mullica Hill. The green particles them- 
selves have an invariable composition — and those 
of our Virginia marl beds are perfectly identical 
with those of the New Jersey deposite. Thirty 
grains of the green sand yielded by careful analy- 



Silica, 


15.51 g 


Protoxide of iron. 


7.56 " 


Potash, 


3.10 " 


Water, 


3.00 " 


Magnesia, a trace. 





These results agree very closely with the deter- 
mination of Berthier of France, and Seybert of 
Philadelphia. The Ibrmer operated upon the 
green sand of Europe, the latter upon that of 
New Jerse}% It appears therefore that the pre- 
dominant constituents are silica and oxide of iron. 
The potash, amounting to about ten per cent, is 
most probably the ingredient chiefly concerned in 
the agricultural agency of the marl, though in 
what Avay its connexion with the other ingrecUents 
is severed when the marl is spread upon the land, 
I am at a loss to conjecture. 

Throughout all the district in which this depo- 
site occurs, it is extensively employed in agricul- 
ture. In the neighborhood of Arney's Town, one 
of the points which I visited, it has been used as 
a manure for the last thirty years — but its general 
introduction is of more recent date. In the region 
in which the marl chiefly abounds, the soil is 
loamy, having in some places a large intermixture 
of tenacious clay. East of this tract, which is a 
narrow band nearly parallel to the Delaware Ri- 
ver, the country assumes an appearance very si- 
milar to that of the sandy lands of Eastern Virgi- 
nia, covered with a thick growth of pine, and com- 
paratively unproductive. On both these varieties 
of soil the green sand is continually used with the 
most striking benefit. For the clay soils, the more 
sandy marls are of course prefi?rred; and for the 
sandy soils, those which contain some clay along 
with' the marl. The proportion in common use 
near Arney's Town, is from ten to twenty loads 
per acre. In other places five loads or even less 
is found to be sufTicient. The action of the marl 
appears to be very permanent, as wifl be evinced 
by the following statement. In a large quadran- 
gular field over which I walked, four successive 
applications of the marl had been made at inter- 
vals of four years — commencing about twenty 
years ago. The first dressing was applied to the 
north side — the second to the south — the third to 
the east, and the fourth to the west — while a small 
space in the centre, was left without any marl. AH 
four sides were covered with a very heavy crop of 
clover, which was nearly, if not quite as luxuriant 
on the north as either of the other sides — while 
the space in the middle was almost bare. The 
action of the marl appears to be most powerfully 
felt by clover and grass — but it is very conspicu- 
ous also with small grain and corn. A very intel- 
ligent farmer told me that it more than tripled his 
clover and grass crop, and doubled his small grain. 
In general it is spread upon the clover every fourth 
year, and ploughed in for the next crop. That it 
is very efficient upon sandy soils is evinced by the 
following striking fact. Some j^ears ago an en- 



112 



ON CALCAREOUS MANURES. 



tcrpriaing farmer near New Egypt, purchased 
two hundred acres of the Pine Barren, which, hy 
marling, he has converted into pasture sufiicient 
for onehundred head of cattle. Such is the de- 
mand ibr the marl, even at a considerable distance, 
that it has become an article of great ])rofit to the 
proprietors of the pits, and more than one individ- 
ual was pointed out to me who had risen to wealth 
by the sale of marl. 

From what has been stated it will at once be 
evident, that the discovery of exten.sive and acces- 
sible beds of this manure in Virginia would be a 
most important accession to the resources of the 
state, and that an active and diligent search ought 
forthwith to be commenced throughout all the re- 
gion in which there is a probability that it exists. 
Every aid which it is in my power to give, will be 
cheerfully bestowed in furtherance of this inquiry: 
and as I feel the double interest of a scientific cu- 
riosity, and a sincere solicitude for the agricultural 
prosperity of our state, 1 shall gladly receive all 
fossils and other vspecimens which may be trans- 
mitted for inspection or analysis, giving them a 
prompt attention, and communicating in reply such 
liints as may promise to be most useful in this 
deeply interesting and important investigation. 

WM. B. ROGERS. 

Extract from editorial remarks. 

Among the most valuable of these discoveries 
we believe will be found that of the green sand, 
announced in the communication of Professor Ro- 
gers in the first part of this number. We rejoice 
that this and other kindred subjects have been un- 
dertaken by an investigator having suitable scien- 
tific attainments, as well as zeal tor the pursuit. 
This discovery is as yet but dawning, and the ex- 
aminations of many persons guided by the direc- 
tions given in Mr. Rogers' communication, may 
be usefully employed to aid him in the pursuit. 
These aids we earnestly hope will be atlbrded: 
and those who may offer them, will no doubt 
serve their own private interests, as well as that 
ol" the public, by such labors. 

These latter remarks would have appeared bet- 
ter placed innnediately aher the piece to which 
they refer. But our silence then was caused by 
the expectation (which unavoidable circumstances 
have compelled him to disappoint) that the author 
would add the result of an examination of the 
stratum of "gypseous earth," which we have be- 
lieved to be very similar to, if not identical with 
the green sand or Jersey marl. This examination 
will yet be made: and we feel confident that there, 
and still nearer the falls of the rivers, will belbund 
in the greatest quantities the earth described as 
green sand. 

From the Farmers' Register of May, 1835.* 

further observations on the green sand and calca- 
reous marl of Virginia. 

In a communication published in the 3rd No. 
of the Register, I announced the discovery of 
the green sand, or silicate of iron and potash, in the 
ordinary tertiary marl in Lower Virginia. Geo- 
logical considerations, taken in connexion with this 



*This has received the author's corrections of some 
slight en-ors in the first impression,and others in his MS. 



discovery, led to the inference that an older de- 
posite, consisting in much larger proportion of this 
peculiar substance, would be found in a region 
more remote from the seaboard, and not far below 
the head of tide; and from the great agricultural 
value of this substance, as proved by the expe- 
rience of the farmers in New Jersey, I was indu- 
ced to point out its probable position, and to give 
such hints and directions with regard to its accom- 
panying indications as might prove useful in any 
researches Avhich might be undertaken by persons 
residing in the region in which it was supposed to 
exist. Since the publication of the paper referred 
to, as far as other engagements would permit, this 
important inquiry has been actively continued, not 
only in refijrence to the presumed deposite above 
mentioned, but also to the extensive calcareous 
formation of our lower counties. 

Besides the practical importance of this investi- 
gation to the agriculture of" a large district of the 
state, in a purely geological aspect, it was calcula- 
ted to excite the highest interest. In the vast re- 
gion of our tide-water country, at farthest, only 
two members of the tertiary group of forma- 
tions had been hitherto discovered, and no decided 
indications of a secondary deposite likely to prove 
interesting to men of science, had been fbund. 
At the mouth of the Potomac, and at some other 
points, a deposite had been detected by Mr. Con- 
rad of Philadelphia, which from the great pre- 
dominance of shells of existing species, was re- 
garded by him as belonging to the upper or newer 
tertiary. The same eminent conchologist by an ex- 
amination of numerous fossils from York town, 
Suffolk, the James River, near Smithfield, and 
other localities, had clearly proved that this por- 
tion of the tertiary series was of greater antiquity 
than the former, and accordingly he has recently 
applied to it the title of middle tertiary — which, 
as some geologists in Europe divide the tertiary 
o-roup into four period?, would include both the 
second and third of these subordinate formations. 
The lower tertiary, which Mr. Conrad had so 
successfully investigated in Alabama, had not as 
yet been brought to light Avithin the limits of Vir- 
ginia. Thus, therefore, these inquiries appeared 
ll-aughtwith the lively interest of scientific discov- 
ery, while at the same time they inspired the ani- 
mating hope, that in some of their results, they 
might'evcntually be found conducive to the inter- 
ests of an important district of the state. 

From the great extent of the middle tertiary 
of Lower Virginia, it was to be expected that, 
notwithstanding the diligence and learning of those i 
who had visited several of its interesting localities, 
with the view of studying its fossil contents, an ex- 
tensive field of future discovery would be opened 
to the scientific explorer— and a ^reat variety of 
new and peculiar fbssils would be Drought to light. 
To a certain extent this anticipation has been re- 
alized; and the occasional examinations which I 
have made in this vicinity, and at some remote 
points, have been rewarded by an extension of the_ 
list of fossils, and the discovery of a number of 
new and interesting species. To the readers of 
the Register, generally, the details of these ob- 
servations would appear unimportant, if not use- 
less, and must therefore be omitted. At the same 
time, I maybe allowed to add, that such filets are 
frequently invested with a practical interest, by the '• 
aids which they furnL^h to other and more impor- 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



113 



tant discoveries; and that, however little value, in 
tlie abstract, would attach to an enumeration and 
description of the shells, zoophytes, and other re- 
mains of our marl banks, they are absolutely es- 
sential in studying the physical history of this por- 
tion ol the globe, and may prove of some assist- 
ance not only in guiding the researches of the 
farmer after marl, but in directing his choice of cal- 
careous manure, when various deposites of this 
substance are ottered for his selection. Of the 
latter point, several striking illustrations might be 
adduced— but I shall content myselt; for the pre- 
sent, with the statement of a single fact. A small 
shell of rough exterior, and rather irregular form, 
a species of chama, is frequently found in very 
extensive beds in this vicinity and at other points, 
forming nearly the entire calcareous portion of the 
deposite. From its peculiar form and friable 
'cJiaracter, it is most generally in a condition to be 
eminently serviceable as a manure. As the strata 
both above and below are often of a very differ- 
ent texture, though perhaps nearly equal to it in 
reo-ard to their calcareous contents, a choice is at 
on°e presented to the farmer, in which, he will be 
guided even more by the nature of the shell em- 
bedded, than by the compartUive abundance of 
carbonate of lime. But so little attention has been 
paid to the characters of the fossils contained in 
our marl-banks, that even in places where the 
manure has been longest and most successfully in 
use, a less valuable stratum is sometimes selected 
in preference to one of superior fertilizing power. 
A more minute observation of such particulars, 
can scarcely be expected, in the absence of some 
popular guide, in the Ibrm of delineations and de- 
scriptions of" the more prominent shells, exempted 
as much as possible liom technical or merely 
scientific phraseology. Some such illustrations 
may hereafter be furnished in a cheap form in the 
progress of a geological examination of the east- 
ern region of our state. 

Since the publication of my former paper, a 
great number of additional observations have been 
made with regard to the green sand contained in 
our ordinary midiUe tertiary marl. Its uniform 
presence in this deposite, in a greater or less pro- 
portion, seems now to be sufficiently established. 
That it is generally present insufficient quantity 
to enhance in any important degree the agricultu- 
ral utility of the manure, it would be going much 
too far to assert; but that in many cases the propor- 
tion is such as cannot fail of producing highly 
beneficial effects upon vegetation, would seem to 
be demonstrated not only by the long experience 
of the farmers of New Jersey with the green sand 
itself, but by the observations of individuals 



estates in this vicinity, are peculiarly rich in this 
ingredient, and are hence, as well as from their fri- 
able texture, generally selected in preference to 
all others. In some o"f these deposites, as large a 
proportion as thirty, and in some specimens forty 
per cent., has been found; and in cases like this, if 
we are to trust to the experience of New Jersey, 
a very marked addition to the fertilizing power "of 
the marl must be ascribed to the presence of this 
inm-edient. 

In alluding thus to the influence of the green 
sand as an auxiliary manure, the inquiry naturally 
arises, to which of its ingredients are its meliora"- 
{ ting effects to be ascribed, or do they arise from the 
I conjoint action of the potash and oxide of iron 
which it contains? To this inquiry, perhaps, it 
would be premature to attempt to respond. At 
all events, the rationale of its action cannot be 
given with that certainty, which in such matters, 
it is desirable to attain. As stated in the former 
communication, its components are protoxide of 
iron, potash andsilex; the latter ingredient appear- 
ing to act, as it is known to do in many rocks, in 
the capacity of an acid. In virtue of the potash 
contained in the green sand, we would naturally 
infer an agency in neutralizing acids, similar to 
that of lime, or its carbonate — and the extent to 
which the manure possesses this property, must 
appear still further increased when we ad.vert to 
the chemical nature of the protoxide of iron. 

Iron, like most other metallic bodies, combines 
with oxygen in more than one proportion. These 
compounds, or oxides as they are termed, are two 
in number, and in accordance with the general rule 
adopted by chemists in designating this class cf 
substances, that which contains the least ])ropor- 
tion of oxygen, is called the protoxide— that contain- 
ing the most, the peroxide. The rust of iron, and 
the red coloring matter of ochreous clays, and of 
bricks and tiles, are impure specimens of the per- 
oxide of iron. The protoxide is never found in 
an uncondoned condition; and such is the avidity 
with which it imbibes an additional quantity of 
oxygen, or unites with carbonic and other acids, 
that it undergoes a rapid change whenever disen- 
gaged. Hence, under fiivorable circumstances, 
a strong neutralizing action might be anticipated 
from this ingredient of the green sand. We may 
therefore, for the present, rest our explanation of 
the agency of this manure upon the alkaline pro- 
perties of these two constituents, the potash and 
the protoxide of iron. But in suggesting this ex- 
planation, it must be freely confessed that, espe- 
cially as relates to the action of the protoxide of 
iron, it must be looked upon as problematical, 
I and requiring for the establishment of its truth, an 



amongst ourselves who have been in the habit of r experimental knowledge of the influence of this 
applying a calcareous marl in Avhich this sub- substance upon the growing vegetable, of which 
stance is peculiarly abundant. In the vicinity of 



Williamsburg, almost every variety of the com 
mon mari may be found; but that which has been 
observed to produce the most striking eflfccts as a 
manure, has uniformly yielded to chemical exam- 
ination a comparatively large proportion of the 
green sand. When therefore, it is in the power 
of the farmer to make the selection, such marl 
should be chosen, as, along with a large propor- 
tion of calcareous matter in a suitable state of 
subdivision, contains also as great an amount as 
possible of this auxiliary manure. The beds of 
chama already referred to, as abounding on some 
15 



nothing has as yet been positively determined. 

As already indicated, when these inquiries 
were entered upon, and at the time when my first 
communication appeared in the Register, the ex- 
istence of a loiver tertiary deposite in Virginia 
had not been ascertained. The industry of Mr. 
Conrad had brought to light a formation of this 
nature in Alabama, and had led to the probable in- 
ference that it existed at Fort Washington in Ma- 
ryland. Moreover one or two of the fossils obtain- 
ed from the editor of the Register encouraged the 
hope that it might be found in our own state. The 
observations of that gentleman respecting the gy^ 



1 



114 



ON CALCAREOUS MA^"URES. 



seous earth of James River* had appeared some 
time before, and though nothing positive could be 
gained from tliem, in relation to the geological 
character of the deposite, to which he affixed that 
name, they threw out the important and saga- 
cious suggestion, that this earth was the same 
with the green sand of New Jersey, or at least a 
substance of analogous character. We shall in 
the sequel, learn that though geologically the two 
formations belong to periods which are distinct, 
the gypseous earth contains a large proportion of 
that particular ingredient, (the green silicate of 
iron and potash,) of which the "New Jersey de- 
posite almost exclusively consists. We are there- 
lore indebted to the editor ol' the Register, for the 
announcement of the important tact, that the 
green sand, or a substance analogous to it, existed 
in certain localities on the James River. 

Following up the suggestions of geological 
analogy, alluded to in my first paper, and stimu- 
lated by the observations and statements of Mr. 
Ruffin, I have been enabled by personal inspec- 
tion, and through the kindness of correspondents, 
to ascertain with certainty, the existence of a 
lower tertiary deposite, throughout an extensive 
district of Eastern Virginia, and moreover to deter- 
mine what is far more important to the agriculture 
of this region, that the deposite in question com- 
prises immense strata of green sand, perhaps near- 
ly equal in value to that which is in use in New 
Jersey. The reader, however, is by no means to 
infer from the existence of the green sand so 
abundantly, both in this lower tertiary and in the 
New Jersey formation, that the two deposites be- 
long to the same geological era. I have already 
stated that the New Jersey green sand, is a se- 
condary deposite — and of course anterior to the 
formation here designated as lower tertiary. The 
shells and other fossils, entombed in the two de- 
posites are strikingly different, and characteristic oi' 
difference of geological antiquity. As it is desira- 
ble that clear ideas should be entertained, in rela- 
tion to the distinction here drawn, I would claim 
the indulgence of the reader, in presenting such 
explanations, and illustrations, as are calculated 
to throw light upon a subject in which, at least in 
some particulars, all are obviously interested. 

Tlie term primary having been adopted by geo- 
logists as designating that extensive class of rocks 
which fi-om various indications, appeared in gene- 
ral to have originated first, and which are destitute 
of all traces of" animal or vegetable existence — 
the title of secondary, was of course appropriated 
to a class, apparently of more recent origin, usu- 
ally overlying the former, and in which, in many 
cases, an enormous accunmlation of organic re- 
mains had been discovered. A minute examina- 
tion of these remains, consisting of shells, the 
bones of animals, &c., disclosed the curious fact 
that they belonged to races of beings of which, at 
present, there are only very few living represen- 
tatives. Subsequent observations, first systemati- 
cally made by Cuvier and Brogniart in the vicini- 
ty of Paris, further demonstrated that overlying 
the secondary formation of that region, there ex- 
isted an extensive series of deposites of great 
thickness, the fossil contents of which Avere, on 
the whole, very dissimilar from those of the form- 
er — not only all the species, but many of the most 



♦Article on "Gypseous Earth," page 105. 



remarkable animal and vegetable forms being dis- 
tinct, while at the same time many of the species 
were observed to be iilentical with others now alive. 
The difference thus marked between the two se- 
ries of deposites, uniformly jjrevailing wherever 
they were observed, led to the introduction of the 
term tertiary, to designate the upper and more re- 
cent. By scrutinizing in detail the tertiary series, 
it was soon discovered to consist of several dis- 
tinct subordinate formations, characterized by pe- 
culiar fossils, and becoming more assimilated in 
their organic contents to the existing living world, 
in proportion as their position in the series aj)- 
proached nearer and nearer to the surface. The 
most recent systematic writer on geology, and one 
of the most learned and able geologists of the 
day, has distinguished four subordinate formations 
in the tertiary series — and has given to each a 
specific name, expressive of its relative period of 
deposition. Though unwilling to peq^lex the 
reader with the terms of science, I may perhaps 
be excused on this occasion tor introducing the 
names here referred to, on the ground that they 
are likely to be met with frequently hereafter in 
geological descriptions of the tertiary deposites of 
this country — and as they are distinctive of things 
which are characteristically diiferent, and which 
have received no other denominations so appropri- 
ate, they have a just claim to be received. The 
terms thus employed by Mr. Lyell, the distin- 
guished geologist above alluded to, are — 

1st. Pliocene, indicating a majority of the con- 
tained fossils to be recent, and divided into newer 
and older Pliocene. Under this head are com- 
prised some of the shell deposites near the mouths 
of our rivers. 

2nd. Miocene, indicating a minority of the con- 
tained fossils to be recent. "To this formation be- 
long most of our calcareous strata which have 
previously been referred to under the title of mid- 
dle tertiary. 

3rd. Eocene, signifying the dxiwn; indicating 
the presence of a ^aw Ibssils analogous to living 
species, or in other words a dawning of that condi- 
tion of the animated worid which now prevails. 
Examples of this are furnished in the lower ter- 
tiary of Alabama, and the lower tertiary here al- 
luded to as recendy discovered in Virginia. 

The nature of the materials in which the fossils 
of these different deposites are embedded is very 
various. Sometimes the formation is a sofl sand^ 
or clay — sometimes a sandstone or limestone of 
comparative hardness. In some cases the deposi- 
tion appears, from the nature of the fossils, to have 
been made beneath the ocean — soinetimes at the 
bottom of an extensive lake. In the vicinity of 
Paris, there are three marine formations alter- 
nating with two of fresh water or lake origin; and 
from one of the latter, the celebrated gypsum or 
plaster of Paris is extensively quarried. In Virgi- 
nia, no traces of afresh water tertiary have as yet 
been discerned. The general direction of the 
deposite is horizontal, and the whole appears to 
have been formed at successive eras beneath the 
waters of the ocean. 

From what has now been said, it will at once 
appear that strong features of resemblance ai^ 
presented in the geology even of the more recent 
formations in this country an<i Europe. The most 
striking similarity exists between the secondary of 
1 New Jersey and that of many places in Europe— 



PART III— APPENDIX. 



115 



as tar as fossil contents are concerned. But in Eu- 
rope a great proportion of these tbssils are embed- 
ded in chalk; whereas, in New Jersey, no chalk 
has been discovered, and its place is occupied by 
green sand, very similar to that, which, in the for- 
mer localities, alternates with the layers of chalk. 

The lower tertiary or eocene of Virginia is found 
in a band of variable, and as yet unascertained 
breadth, travei-sing the state nearly in a direction 
from north to soutli. It makes its appearance on 
both sides of the Potomac, in a line a little east of 
Fredericksburg. It then crosses the Rappahan- 
nock near Port Royal, the Pamunkey probably 
near Piping Tree, and the James River at Coggin's 
Point. With regard to its course further south, 
though its existence is probable, additional data 
are required. 

In general character, this formation may be thus 
described. At the base of the cliff or bank, there 
usually exists a stratum of what at first sight ap- 
pears to be a blue or black clay, but which, on fur- 
tlier examination, is found to consist principally of 
particles of the silicate of iron and potash, which 
when dried, becomes of a Uvely green color. 
Mingled with this substance are portions of com- 
mon clay and sand, and numerous minute shining 
scales of mica. Embedded in the mass, and usu- 
ally in a very friable condition, numerous shells 
chiefly of small dimensions will be found. Some- 
times however, the matter of the shell has entirely 
disappeared, leaving a distinct cast or impression 
in the earth, by which its specific character may 
often be ascertained. Immediately above this 
stratum is a heavy deposite of what Mr. Rulfin 
has described as gypseous earth.* Large masses 
of crystalized gypsum, and sometimes the most 
beautiful groups of perfect crystals of this sub- 
stance, are disseminated throuf^hout this layer. It 
was this portion of the formation which Mr. Ruf- 
lin conceived to be identical with the green sand 
of New Jersey. In color, this stratum varies 
from a greenish yellow to a brown. Besides a 
considerable proportion of green sand, it contains, 
in addition to the crj^stalized gypsum, a notable 
amount of this substance in a subdivided state, 
and seemingly occupying flie place of the shells 
which were formerly present, and have been de- 
composed under the chemical agency of some 
substance Avhich filtrated in solution through the 
mass. Incumbent upon this bed is a thin ia3-er of 
very pure wtiite clay, of a texture which would 
recommend it to various useful purposes. Over- 
lying the clay in some places, is a stratum of shell 
marl in a very subdivided state, containing masses 
of casts and shells approaching to the liardness of 
rock. This is the uppermost layer of the eocene 



* The term "gypseous earth," used in the article re- 
ferred to above, was applied not to a part, (as here sup- 
posed,) but to the whole of that formation which Mr. 
Rogers has since shown to be of "green sand." But 
it was also stated, that by the general application of 
that term to the extensive beds which seemed to have 
had a common origin, (and formerly, the same chemi- 
cal composition,) it was not intended to convey the 
opinion that all this earth contained sulphate of "hme, 
either in crj stals, or finely divided. On the contrary, 
that ingredient was said not to be present, in any per- 
ceptible quantity, in but very few parts of the great 
body of what was there called "gypseous earth." — See 
Farmers' Register, Vol. I. p. 208.— Ed. 



or lower tertiary formation. Yet at some points a 
stratum of the ordinary middle tertiary marl rests 
almost immediately upon the former, and would 
not by an ordinary observer be recognized as dis- 
tinct. At Tarbay, where this succession of strata 
was observed, a thin and scarcely distinct lay- 
er of small brownish red pebbles intervenes be- 
tween these two layers of shells, seeming to 
mark a comparatively violent action of the wa- 
ters in the interval of the two deposites. But 
an examination of the shells, in these two contigu- 
ous strata, affords abundant evidence of their 
belonging to distinct geological epochs. In the 
upper stratum the large scallops, the common oys- 
ter of our marl, and all the usual ingredients of 
our middle tertiary or miocene formation, may be 
recognised. In the lower bed lew or none of them 
exist,' but certain characteristic shells belonging to 
the eocene period are entombed. Similar fossils 
appear below, in the green sand beneath the gyp- 
seous earth; and here a great variety of beautiful 
specimens may be discerned. An enumeration of 
these fossils in this place would of course be at- 
tended nehher Avith utility nor interest, and in- 
deed, were it advisable in the present stage of the 
inquiry, it could not be made, on account of the 
necessity of comparing the specimens with shells 
from other localities in Europe and this country, 
in order to identify species, and to decide upon 
those which are new, or peculiar to our own for- 
mation. That many such exist, I have every rea- 
son to believe, and with future leisure it is hoped 
that they will be named according to the fashion 
of the day, and described in the appropriate place. 
It will however be of real value to the reader, in 
any inquiries which he may institute, in reference 
(o this formation, to obtain some general idea of 
the characters of two or three of the more conspic- 
uous and characteristic shells. The observer will 
perhaps be able to recognize the following: — 

1st. The cardita planicosta. This shell is of 
various sizes, rarely however equalling that of the 
clam. In form it bears some resemblance to that 
shell; but on the convex side a number of flattened 
ridges run from the knobbed extremity near the 
hinge, spreading from each other and enlarging as 
they approach the margin. The hinge part of the 
shell is very thick. This shell, occurs abundantly 
in the eocene or lower tertiary of Europe, and al- 
so in that of Alabama. 

2nd. Ostrea sellcBformis, or saddle-shaped oj's- 
ter. This shell is very ])eculiar, having, when 
full grown, such alateral extension on each side as 
to present, when the hollow of the shell is turned 
down, a very distinct resemblance to asacklle with 
its two depending flaps. It is found abundantly in 
the eocene of Alabama. 

3rd. F'usus longaevis, a small shell less than 
an inch in length, and resembling in general form, 
those Avhich are commonly called conchs. It is 
however flattened down on one side as if it had 
been subjected to pressure. This shell occurs abun- 
dantly in the eocene of Europe — but I believe has 
not until now been discovered in the corresponding 
formation of this country. 

These three tbssils, Avhich are all found in great 
numbers in such of the eocene localities in V^ir- 
ginia as I have examined, are sufficient to iden- 
tify the formation wherever they may be discov- 
ered. But as already indicated, they are accom- 
panied by a variety of other shells, a large pro- 



lit) 



Ui\ UAJLUAKEOUS MANURES. 



portion of which, would appear to be peculiar to 
this particular region. It would seem that the 
eocene of Virginia though agreeing in most re- 
spects with that of Alabama, contains ?ome 
fossils found also in the Paris eocene, and which 
are absent from that of Alabama. 

_ In niost of the specimens of marl from this re- 
gion hitherto examined, besides a large amount of 
green sand, I have found a considerable propor 
tion of gypsum, and in some of them as much as 
forty or fifty per cent, of carbonate of lime. Spe 
cimens received from Dr. Corbin Braxton, at 
the Piping Tree, were found to contain, along vvith 
much green sand, a great amount of the carbo- 
nate of lime, and some gypsum. Judging from 
Its composition and texture, it must be looked up- 
on as a very valuable manure. At Coggin's 
Point, the lower stratum before described, contains 
from sixt3^ to seventy per cent, of the green sand, 
Avith a small proportion of carbonate of lime, and 
occasionally a little gypsum. The next deposite 
above, (the gypseous earth) abounds in gypsum, 
but contains less green sand than the former. Of 
this ingredient, however, it still possesses a very 
considerable proportion. In alluding to the power- 
ful effects of the gypseous earth, in a tnal which 
he made, the author of the Essay on Calcareous 
Manures describes them as much greater than 
could be accounted for by the proportion of gyp- 
sum present, and hence throws out the suggestion 
(hat some other fertilizing ingredient was contain- 
ed in the earth. This additional eflect must doubt- 
less be ascribed to the presence of the green 
sand. 

In prosecuting the geological survey of Ma- 
ryland, Professor Ducatel has been enabled to ascer- 
tain the existence of a green sand deposite through- 
out an important district of that state. Of its ex- 
istence on both sides of the Potomac I was al- 
ready fully aware— and it affords me much satis- 



faction to find that the suggestions based upon 
general geological considerations, which were 
presented in my former paper, have already been 
so actively and ably followed up by this enlio-hten- 
ed and diligent observer. Of tlie identity of some 
of the green sand deposites described in his report 
with that now ascertained to exist in the eocene 
of Virginia, I am as yet by no means convinced; 
but a minute geological examination, such as that 
already insfifuted in Marj'land, and that which is 
looked to with some interest in Virginia, cannot 
fail to throw very useful light on this, as well as al! 
the other important deposites in the tide-water 
region of the two states. Mutual benefit would 
arise from the co-operation of surveys, conducted 
at the same time in the two adjoining territories, 
and in this way the interests of the states, as well 
as those of science, would be most etlectu ally "and 
speedily promoted. 

To the very meagre details, in relation to the 
green sand, presented in this communication, I 
may hope ere long to be enabled to add the results 
of extensive and minute personal observation in 
the interesting region in which the eocene forma- 
tion has been detected. In the mean time, the 
progress of inquiry may be greatly fiirthered by 
the friendly aid of those who, from their residence 
in the region in question, will have itin their pow- 
er readily to collect specimens of shells or earth, 
and to transmit them to me for inspection. | 
would therefore, earnestly solicit assistance af this 
kind, and in return, I will gladly communicate the 
results of any observations I may be thus enabled 
to make. To urge the importance of this, and 
other similar inquiries, would now no lonffer seem 
to be necessary — since a large portion of the in- 
telligence and enterprise of our state appears 
prompt to recognise their value, and interested 
n furthering their active and successful prosecu- 
tion. 

WM. B, ROGERS. 



KRRATA. 

rage 4, ill date of preface, for "1834" read "1832." 

5, at the end of the advertisement to 2d ed. insert date, "^pril 1835.' 
19, co!. 1, 14th line— for '-forty-seven" read "fifty-seven." 
49, col. 1, line 47, after "Appendix H." add "aiid S." 
68, col. 2, line 60, for "Appendix P." read -'Appendix E." 
81, col. 2, 1st line of the note — for "translation," rend "transition." 






•K 



